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Amygdala: See Nuclei, amygdaloid.

Apoptosis: A process of controlled cell elimination, e.g., many if not most postmitotic, postmigratory, welldifferentiated neurons are eliminated during the formation of synapses. Defects in apoptosis may underlie various neurodegenerative disorders.

Archipallium: The cerebral cortex of the hippocampal formation. It is separated from the neopallium by the peri-archicortex (presubiculum), and it becomes distinguishable at stage 21 (Fig. 21-17).

Area dentata: The zone between the hippocampus sensu stricto and the area epithelialis. It develops into the dentate gyrus and, during the embryonic period, is characterized by having only a ventricular layer (Fig. 21-4).

Area epithelialis: The field between the area dentata and the lamina terminalis (Figs. 21-4 and 21-17). It consists of one to two, and later more, rows of cells, which, as development proceeds, contain dark inclusions. In the fetal period, a part of it becomes the lamina affixa.

Area hippocampi: This is characterized at first by an early appearing telencephalic marginal layer, and this is the only part of the telencephalon that possesses a marginal layer (Fig. 16-11). A ventricular thickening forms in the dorsomedial wall of the cerebral hemisphere (Fig. 15-4). It is C-shaped already at stage 18.

Area reuniens: A term used by His for the junctional region of the prosencephalon, the hypophysial primordium, the tip of the notochord, the roof of the foregut, and the oropharyngeal membrane.

Areae membranaceae: Two very thin areas of endothelioid cells in the roof of the fourth ventricle (Fig. 17-5). The epithelium is thinnest at 6 weeks, whereas at the end of the embryonic period, the thin cells become replaced by cuboidal cells. The area membranacea rostralis is adjacent to the cerebellar primordium. The area membranacea caudalis corresponds to the central bulge of

Brocklehurst (1969) and to the saccular ventricular diverticulum of Wilson (1937), and is believed to be the site of the future median aperture of the fourth ventricle.

Bundles, forebrain: See Fasciculi, prosencephalic.

Canal, neurenteric: A more or less vertical passage (perpendicular to the embryonic disc) that appears during stage 8 as a result of increasing breakdown of the floor of the notochordal canal (q.v.). Both canals commence in common, dorsally in the primitive pit, and the neurenteric canal may be regarded as the remains of the notochordal canal at the level of the primitive node. The neurenteric canal connects the amniotic cavity (at the primitive pit) with that of the umbilical vesicle (or so-called yolk sac) (Fig. 9-3E). The canal in stages 8 and 9 and its site in stages 10 to 12 are important landmarks in development and teratogenesis (Muller¨ and O’Rahilly, 2004a).

Canal, notochordal: An oblique passage that appears in the notochordal process during stage 8 (Fig. 8-2).

Catecholamine cell groups (Tables 17-3 and 26-2): dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and adrenergic neurons (Zecevic and Verney, 1995). Monoamines have most probably also a trophic function (Verney et al., 2002).

Cells, Cajal-Retzius: Among the early-formed neurons (Fig. 17-19) as revealed by reeler-immunoreactivity (Zecevic et al., 1999). They are tangentially arranged bipolar neurons within the primordial plexiform layer. Those in the future molecular layer mature late in trimester 2 (Verney and Derer, 1995) and are most evident near the middle of prenatal life (Tsuru et al., 1996). Reelin produced by the Cajal-Retzius cells is responsible for the normal migration of the neurons from the ventricular layer to the periphery of the wall of the brain. Once the cortical plate develops, the Cajal-Retzius cells are external to (“above”) it. The

fetal Cajal-Retzius cells are transformed embryonic C-R cells and have triangular, inverted pyramidal, or fusiform cells bodies from which two or more long horizontal dendrites emerge.

A distinction has been made between Cajal and Retzius cells (Meyer et al., 1999a): the former lie closer to the pia, are smaller, and are frequently triangular or piriform, and they appear when the Retzius cells have already largely disappeared.

The thick horizontal fiber extends throughout the surface of the cerebral cortex for a considerable distance and establishes contacts with the apical dendrites of all pyramidal neurons, regardless of their location (layers 6, 5, 4, 3, 2) or different functional role. The transfer of neuronal information from the Cajal– Retzius cells to all pyramidal neurons may be necessary for all of the latter to acquire and to maintain their funtional activity (Mar´ın-Padilla, 1988a). Here, as in other regions, the use of immunological neuronal markers would enable such cells to become identifiable at earlier stages, as is being found already in other species.

Cells, stem: See Stem cells, neural.

Cerebellum: This part of the hindbrain is derived mostly from the entire alar laminae of rhombomere 1 but partly from the isthmus rhombencephali. The sources of cellular production are mainly the rhombic lip of rhombomere 1 and the ventricular layer of the alar laminae (Fig. 18-18). The cerebellar primordium, distinguishable at stage 13 (Fig. 13-2), becomes the cerebellar plate (q.v.) at about stage 18 (Fig. 18-1), by which time cerebellar swellings (q.v.) have appeared. The cerebellar hemispheres develop early in the fetal period, and the vermis is formed from the median portion of the hemispheres. See also Swellings, cerebellar.

Cerebrum: From Latin, meaning brain. In ancient usage the larger convoluted mass as distinct from the smaller (the cerebellum). At the time of His it included the mesencephalon (cf. cerebral peduncles), but became restricted to the prosencephalon, or to the telencephalon, or to the cerebral hemispheres. Hence the term has practically no scientific value, in contrast to the almost indispensable adjective (e.g., the middle cerebral artery).

Commissures of brain: In this book the term “commissure” is used as soon as fibers cross the median plane, although fibers growing medially are present long before they cross. Examples are the anterior and posterior commissures, and the corpus callosum. See also Decussation.

Cord, hypoglossal cell: A dense cellular prolongation formed by the dermatomyotomic material of at least

the rostralmost three occipital somites caudal to the rostral cardinal vein. The dermatomic cells cannot be distinguished from the myotomic cells, nor can possible contributions from neural crest and epipharyngeal material of the vagus nerve be excluded. The relocation of the cells in the tongue is achieved before the arrival of the hypoglossal nerve. (O’Rahilly and Muller,¨ 1984b). The hypoglossal cord forms (at least some of) the muscles of the tongue. A reconstruction of the hypoglossal cell cord at stage 12 (Muller¨ and O’Rahilly, 1987, Fig. 6B) is in agreement with experimental findings in the rat, in which, at a similar stage, neural crest and dermatomyotomic cells of the occipital somites migrate within and dorsal to pharyngeal arches 3 and 4.

Cord, neural: The neural tissue in the caudal eminence of embryos with a closed caudal neuropore. It becomes canalized secondarily. The development of spinal cord (at stages 12 to about 17–20) from this solid material is termed secondary neurulation (Fig. 12-13).

Cord, spinal: Embryologically, the part of the neural tube caudal to the last (the hypoglossal) rhombomere (Rh.D).

Corpus striatum (Fig. 19-6): The lentiform and caudate nuclei, which become connected by alternating striae of white and gray matter (hence the name). The putamen and the caudate nucleus are telencephalic and arise from the lateral ventricular eminence (experimental evidence exists in the rat), whereas the globus pallidus (externus and internus) is diencephalic and arises from the subthalamus.

Crest, neural: Cells that appear at the neurosomatic junction (i.e., between neural ectoderm and somatic ectoderm) and are probably almost exclusively derived from the neural ectoderm. Most of the crest cells of the brain leave the neural folds before closure of the neural tube (Figs. 10-5 to 7). They participate in the formation of the cranial ganglia (Fig. 11-2). The spinal ganglia appear as cellular condensations of neural crest only at stage 13 (Fig. 13-8B-C). The migration of neural crest cells depends on the extracellular matrix through which they travel. Migratory neural crest cells possess stem cell-like properties.

Decussation: An intersection, the two lines of the letter X, as in the optic chiasma. Further examples are the pyramidal decussation (Fig. 23-32), the decussation of the superior colliculi (e.g., of the tectobulbar fibers, Fig. 15-5), and that of the fibers of the trochlear nerves (Fig. 19-15). See also Commissures.

Dopaminergic centers: Early accumulations of dopaminergic cells that form the interpeduncular nucleus, the ventral tegmental area, the substantia nigra, and the amygdaloid complex (Fig. 17-13).