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The main verb usually ends in -ed but, as we saw earlier, some verbs have irregular past participles as in the first sentence. In active sentences the order of the elements of a sentence usually follows the pattern subject – verb – object, like this:

That man stole my wallet.
I painted this picture.

In these examples the subject or ‘doer’ of the verb is that man and I respectively, while my wallet and this picture are the objects. The main purpose of the passive is to change the focus of attention of the sentence, so it is often used when the more important information is:

what happened to the subject – I’ve been robbed!
who or what carried out the action – Guernica was painted by Picasso.
how the action was carried out – the concerto was played beautifully.
when the doer is unknown – this house was built in 1845.

If we want to include the identity of the doer, then it has to move to the end of the sentence preceded by the word by. So, in the second sentence above we obviously need to know the identity of the artist that painted Guernica otherwise the sentence makes no sense. (The active form of this sentence is Picasso painted Guernica.)

If you look back to the first set of numbered sentences above you will notice that the doer is missing in every case and yet the sentences are still logical and complete. The doers are either unknown, unnecessary or can be guessed from the context, so, for example, in sentence number 3 we can automatically add by the police.

Explain the difference between deictic and taxic characteristics of a situation. Define the quantitative and the linear type of verb aspect?

Deictic expressions are based on the idea of identification or drawing attention through pointing by means of language. Deictic expression is any expression that uses deictic word. The deictic word is one which takes some element of its meaning from the situation (the speaker, the addressee, the time and the place) of utterance in which it is used. The general phenomenon of its occurrence is called deixis. (Hurford, 2007: 66) Deixis is kind of reference that can only be accomplished with people and concrete things in one’s immediate environment.

The deictic words point directly to things in physical-social context of the speaker and addressee(s) of the context in which they are used. Context or situation of the utterance of deictic expression is very essential to determine what the referent. Deictic is word or noun phrase that has referent by looking the context. It means that different context will be different referent in spite of same word or expression. For the example: In the dialogue between Cahyo and Eka

Cahyo: I like semantics

Eka: I do too

In those utterances, there are two same words. They are “I”. “I” in first utterance has different referent with “I” in second utterance although they are similar in form and sound. We agree that the first I points to Cahyo who is the speaker of it. It means that “I” in first has referent that is Cahyo. While the second I points to Eka who is the speaker of it. It means that “I” in the second has referent that is Eka. From the example we know that the most important thing that influences the referent is the context. In this case is the speaker. Different context (different speaker) will be different referent of deictic expression.

Characteristics of Deictic Expression

1. Deictic expressions are meaningful within a given context. Deictic expression is any expression that points to things or people in the context or situation in which the expression uttered. Deictic expression that is not supported by its context will be less meaning.

2. To achieve an appropriate interpretation, both the speaker and the hearer should share the same context of the utterance (they can have distance communication in condition that both of them know the context well before) Such as:

a) Who is speaking

The hearer must know who is speaking to him. By knowing the speaker the hearer will have referent of the speaker expression.

b) The setting (time and space)

c)The non-verbal communication (gesture) of the speaker If the speaker and hearer about the particular thing that exist in their circumstances and the speaker say to the

hearer “take that glass for me!” without pointing the glass,

the hearer will confused which glass the speaker means. But if the speaker says that by pointing the glass, the hearer will have thorough referent.

3. Deictic expressions are mainly useful in face-to-face communication. By face to face, the speaker and the hearer will know exactly the context when the expression uttered. It belongs to whatever, whoever, and time that surround the participants’ environment. From the characteristics above, the function of deixis is to avoid ambiguities referent when the reference in an utterance is not clear by knowing the context and background knowledge about the topic being discussed. For example:

“Dad, mother and aunt do not stay here anymore”.

That may be ambiguities utterance. It will provide backstop for us to determine who do not stay in the circumstances of the speaker, whether dad, mother, and aunt or only mother and aunt. By knowing the context, we will know exactly who they are. If in the context there are not dad, mother and aunt, so the speaker speaks to other, we can decide that the people who do not stay are dad, mother, and aunt. But if n the context of speaker there is dad and the speaker speaks to dad, we can decide that they are just mother and aunt.

Taxis (from Greek meaning structure, order, arrangement) is the tense correlation between actions in the text (in the broad sense, including any types of predicates): simultaneity / non-simultaneity, ceasing, the relations between the primary and secondary actions, etc. [1, p. 503]. Within a speech act, the question is not about a separate action (state etc.), but about several actions, which are in some manner interrelated (chronologically, cause – effect, contrast relations, etc). These relations are reflected by specific relations between the predicates – relations which form the category of taxis. The term “taxis” was first suggested by R. Jakobson who defined it in the following way: “taxis characterizes the fact which is being referred to, concerning another fact which is being referred to, without any relation to the moment of reference” [7, с. 14].

The form of a verb indicates the time of the action, event or condition. The complex temporal relationship of actions, events and conditions is indicated using a sequence of tenses.

There are various ways of categorizing the twelve verb tenses, including according to time: past, present and future.

Verb tense: time

There are four past tenses:

simple past (I went)
past progressive (I was going)
past perfect (I had gone)
past perfect progressive (I had been going)

There are four present tenses:

simple present (I go)
present progressive (I am going)
present perfect (I have gone)
present perfect progressive (I have been going)

Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are not past tenses—the speaker is currently in the state of having gone or having been going.

There are four future tenses:

simple future (I will go)
future progressive (I will be going)
future perfect (I will have gone)
future perfect progressive (I will have been going)

Verb tense: aspect

Verb tenses may also be categorized according to aspect. Aspect refers to the nature of the action described by the verb. There are three aspects: indefinite (or simple), complete (or perfect) and continuing (or progressive).

The three indefinite (or simple) tenses describe an action but do not state whether the action is finished:

simple past (I went)
simple present (I go)
simple future (I will go)

The indefinite aspects are used when the beginning or ending of the action, event or condition is unknown or unimportant to the meaning of the sentence. The indefinite aspect also indicates a habitual or repeated action, event or condition.

The three complete (or perfect) tenses describe a finished action:

past perfect (I had gone)
present perfect (I have gone)
future perfect (I will have gone)

The complete aspect indicates that the end of the action, event or condition is known and emphasizes the fact that the action is complete. The action may, however, be completed in the present, in the past or in the future.

The three incomplete (or progressive) tenses describe an unfinished action:

past progressive (I was going)
present progressive (I am going)
future progressive (I will be going)

The progressive aspect indicates that the action, event or condition is ongoing in the present, the past or the future.

It is also possible to combine a complete (or perfect) tense with an incomplete tense to describe an action which was in progress and then finished:

past perfect progressive (I had been going)
present perfect progressive (I have been going)
future perfect progressive (I will have been going)

Explain the difference between the word-combination and the sentence.

Give the syntactic classification of word-combinations.

What is the role of fixed word order in the English language?

Main Difference – Phrase vs. Sentence

Phrase and sentence are common structures in any language and are made up of a group of words. A phrase is a short or long group of words that does not convey a complete thought. A sentence is also a group of words, but it conveys a complete thought. This is the main difference between phrase and sentence.

What is a Phrase

A phrase is a group of words that does not convey a complete thought. As phrases do not express a complete idea, they can’t stand alone. They can only be used as parts of sentences. It lacks a subject or a verb or in some cases both. Therefore, it cannot form a predicate. In the English language, there are five main kinds of phrases. They are,

Noun Phrase: gives information about the noun

Examples: a cute baby, an old lady, many of the theories, a hot summer day, some teachers, etc.

Verb Phrase: gives more meaning to the verb

Examples: She has been eating, was walking, had to be hospitalized, singing a song etc.

Adjective Phrase: gives information about the adjective

Examples: very pretty, terribly long, not very healthy, exquisite handmade

Adverb Phrase: gives information about the adverb.

Examples: slowly and surely, formerly, beautifully, etc.

Prepositional Phrase: gives information about a time, location or condition. A preposition always appears at the front of the phrase.

Examples: down the road, after a long time, beside the lake, on the table, etc.

What is a Sentence

A sentence refers to a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A sentence necessarily contains a subject and a verb. There are four types of sentences. They are as follows,

Declarative Sentence

Declarative sentences state information and facts. A declarative sentence ends with a full stop. This article is mainly written in declarative sentences.

Example:

The Child is sleeping on the floor.

Radium was discovered by Marie Curie.

The dog barks.

Imperative Sentence

Imperative sentences issue commands or orders or they can express wishes or desires. These sentences can contain a single word, or they can be lengthier.

Example:

Stop!

Be Silent!

Turn left and go straight.

Interrogative Sentence

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They are easy to understand as they contain a question mark at the end. Example:

Are you crazy?

Is it raining?

Exclamatory Sentence

Exclamatory sentences express emotions or excitement. They end with exclamation marks.

I won the first place!

It’s a surprise!

Sentences can be further classified according to their structures. A sentence can have a single clause or several clauses. Sentence structures are classified according to these clauses.

Simple Sentence – contains one independent clause.

Complex Sentence – contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Compound Sentence – contains two or more independent clauses.

Compound-Complex Sentence – contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Difference Between Phrase and Sentence

Definition

Phrase is a group of words that are arranged in a grammatical construction and acting as a unit in a sentence.

Sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words that expresses an independent meaning.

Complete Thought

Phrase does not express a complete thought.

Sentence expresses a complete thought.

Subject and Predicate

Phrase does not contain both a subject and a predicate.

Sentence contains both subject and predicate.

Information

Phrase does not give complete information about the subject or the predicate.

Sentence gives complete information about the subject or the predicate.

Punctuation

Phrase does not begin with a capital letter or end in punctuation marks.

Sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

Formal or informal words. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary

Formal Language

Formal language is less personal than informal language. This is commonly used when writing or speaking for professional or academic purposes like emails for business, formal letters, academic write-ups, professional academic circumstances, presentations, reports, official and or legal documents, job interviews, and any scenario where formal language is appropriate. Since it is less personal, this can be used when you are communicating with a person you do not personally know well, like public speeches and tenders.

Note that very formal English in everyday situations may sound pompous at times, so always consider the context and the audience you are targeting. In situations that are more serious like job interviews or emailing your university professor, using formal language is highly encouraged. This can help you avoid sounding disrespectful and inappropriate and help you sound polite and professional instead. Remember that formal language has a more complex grammar where the sentences are generally phrased longer and use modal verbs. In pronunciation, speech is slower when using formal language and the tone should be serious.

Informal Language

Informal language is more casual and laid back. This is commonly used with people you know well as your family and friends. You usually use this when you are in a relaxed environment. When your agenda is to share your personal thoughts or you are telling a story, you should use language that is appropriate to the scenario. Informal language has a more conversational tone, frequently using personal pronouns, informal expressions, sentences are shorter, and the feelings are more personal.

This type of language is best suited to use when telling a story, personal narrations, and social forms like blogs and personal emails. This can also be used in advertising, spontaneous speeches, networking, or socializing with your clients, meetings with your teams, text messages, and everyday conversations with your family and friends you know well. Contractions are used in informal languages to ease the flow and make the speech faster. Abbreviations and acronyms are also used to shorten the words. Colloquial language is also used to allow the casual flow of conversation. You can even insert an emoji here and there when using informal language.

In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word stock of any language, it must be presented as a system the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and interdependent.

The word stock of any literary language can be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of a word may be singled out as interdependent. Lexicology has greatly contributed to classification of the English vocabulary. For stylistics, the reference to the problem of Stylistic classification of the vocabulary is vital.

The whole of the word-stock of the English language can be roughly divided into 3 main layers: