1. 
   The notion of morpheme in grammar
   

• 
  A minimal meaningful unit (L. Bloomfield)
  

In descriptive linguistics:

• 
  The grammatical content of the unit: write(-s) – “s” has the meanings of the present tense,
  

the 3^rd person, singular, indicative mood – all these are different morphemes.

Also “s” has the meaning of plurality: mothers, socks

The zero morphemes is found in words which have no inflexion

but can tale in other forms: pens-pen(the zero morpheme has the meaning of singularity).

Most linguists deny the existence of zero morpheme.

2 kinds of morphemes:

• 
  Root morphemes (has lexical meaning)
  
• 
  Affixes (is also lexical - these are word-building suffixes and prefixes)
  

Grammatical affixes(suffixes) build forms of the same word, they have no lexical meaning:

• 
  Great - greatest
  
• 
  Boy – boy’s
  
• 
  House – houses
  

Morphemes can be presented by some variants – allomorphs

• 
  Help-helpful-helpless (root morphemes)
  
• 
  Reading-writing-going (grammatical affixes)
  

There can be phonetic and graphic difference between the allomorphs:

Root allomorphs: say-said, admire-admiration-admirable, occur-occurrence

Affixes: opened-knocked-visited, tables-desks-roses, impossible-irregular-illegal.

2. 
   Types of word-form derivation
   

1. 
   Synthetic (implies changes within the limits of a word)
   

3 variants of synthetic derivation:

1) The use of grammatical suffixes:

-s- (-es-) the plural of nouns

‘s – the genitive case

-ed – the past tense of regular verb

-est – the superlative degree

2) Sound alternation

* tooth- teeth * drink-drunk *send-sent
3) suppletivity (the use of diff.stems)

I – me

Go – went

Good- better

Sometimes diff.ways of word-form derivation are combined: catch-caught

2. 
   Analytical (implies using a word which has no lexical meaning
   

to express a grammatical category of another word) – was written, more interesting

• 
  The lexical meaning is rendered by the last element – infinitive or participle
  
• 
  The grammatical meaning is rendered by the whole formation
  

The auxiliaries are:

• 
  Limited in number
  
• 
  Combined with a great many notional words
  
• 
  Abbreviated in colloquial speech
  

3. 
   Criteria used in classifying words into part of speech
   

According to the traditional approach there are 3 criteria of classifying:

• 
  Meaning
  
• 
  Form
  
• 
  Function
  

Meaning

Word has a lexical meaning which is individual.

Besides, a word has some grammatical meanings which are more abstract,

generalized and can be found with many words.

We have:

Group A- thing

Group B – process

Such meanings are sometimes called lexico-grammatical
Form

- Includes morphological characteristics of a part of speech,

its grammatical categories

- A grammatical category is a set of grammatical forms

which are opposed in their meaning, we observe some opposition

*According to the number of members opposition can be:

-binary

-ternary

-quaternary

*Qualitative types of opposition

-privative

-gradual

-equipollent
A binary privative opposition consists of 2 members

1. 
   Marked (маркированный, сильный) – has a definite form and a clear meaning
   
2. 
   Unmarked (немаркированный, слабый) – meaning is rather vague and
   

it`s hardly possible to describe it`s form

For example:

Opposition of the category of number: A room – rooms

Opposition of the category of aspect: write – writing

Opposition of the category of voice: opened – was opened

---

(второй маркированный, т.к. ясно значение – страдательный залог.
An opposition can be neutralized

(the unmarked member acquires the meaning of the marked one)

Example: The lion lives in Africa, The bus leaves in 5 minute

Describing the form of a part of speech we speak about

its categories if it is variable:

1. 
   The noun has the categories of number and case
   
2. 
   The adjective has the category of degrees and comparison and etc.
   

We say that the part of speech is invariable if it has no categories
Function

Here we say about syntactic properties of a part of speech, 2 kinds

• 
  Combinability – ability of words to combine with other words to form phrases.
  

Some parts of speech have negative or zero combinability.

E.g.: verbs combine with adverbs (run fast), nouns (reads book), pronouns (saw him)

• 
  Function proper means what part of sentence the word can be
  

E.g.: adjectives are mostly attributes or predicatives.

4. 
   The system of parts of speech suggested by B.A. Ilyish and A.I. Smirnitsky
   

From the point of meaning, form & function

* Ленинградская школа – Ильиш *Московская школа - Смирницкий

1. 
   Noun Class 1. The name 1. Noun
   
2. 
   Adjective 2. Adjective
   
3. 
   Pronoun 3. Numeral
   
4. 
   Numeral 4. Pronoun
   
5. 
   Stative 5. Adverb
   

6. 
   Verb Class 2. The verb 1. Verb
   

7. 
   Adverb Class 3. Lex.meaning 1. Link verbs
   
8. 
   Preposition is weakened 2. Prepositions
   
9. 
   Conjunction 3. Conjunctions
   
10. 
    Particle 4. Articles
    
11. 
    Modal words 5. Particles
    

12. 
    Interjection Class 4. The are not 1. Parenthesis
    

included into the basic 2. Modal verbs

structure of the sentence 3. Interjection

Words outside the classification: yes, no, please

4. Words of

affirmation and negation

5. 
   H. Sweet`s approach to classification of words
   

From the point of meaning, form & function
Words: declinable (знаменательный) & indeclinable
Declinable:

Noun-words	Adjective-words	The verb
Nouns	Adjective	Finite forms
Noun-pronouns	Adjective-pronouns	Non-finite forms ( gerund, participle, infinitive)
Noun-numerals	Adjective-numerals
Gerund	Participle
Infinitive

Indeclinable (particles):

Adverb	Conjunction
Preposition	Interjection

6. 
   Ch. Fries`s classification of words
   

---

From the point of function

• 
  Classification according to words position in the sentence,
  

4 classes of words embracing 75% of the English vocabulary

• 
  He used method of substitution on the material of some simple sentences
  

1. 
   The concert was good
   

class 1 includes words which can be used instead of the “concert”, mostly nouns

2. 
   The clerk remembered the tax
   

substitute for emphasized one, notional verbs

In similar, Fries described Class 3 (adjectives) & Class 4(adverbs)
As to the rest of the words, Fries divided them into 15 groups and named them by letters from A to O

• 
  Group A includes words that can be used instead of “the” in the sentence
  

“The concert was good” – a, this, his, your, another, each, one, John`s, etc.

Other groups are smaller

• 
  Group B – modal verbs
  
• 
  Group C – not
  
• 
  Group F – preposition
  
• 
  Group N – please
  
• 
  Group L – yes, no
  

7. 
   The noun as a part of speech
   

Meaning	Form	Function
Thingness (not only chair, but also beauty, journey, peace and everything presented as thing or object)	The category of number The category of case (common or genitive)	Combines with words to form phrases With preceding adjective With following adjective (times immemorial) With preceding noun either in common case (iron man) With a verb following (children play) or preceding (play games)

8. 
   The noun: category of case
   

This category expresses the relations between the thing denoted by the noun

and other things or properties or actions. It is manifested by some formal sign

in the noun, usually by an inflection.

The most widely spread point of view is as follows:

• 
  the category of case is morphological;
  
• 
  it is based on the binary opposition consisting of two members:
  

the common case and the genitive case (the term “possessive case” is also used

but it is considered to be narrower in meaning).

The common case is the unmarked member of the opposition

as it has no special form and its meaning is rather vague.

The genitive case is marked as it has a special pattern (‘s)

and the definite meaning of possessivity. This meaning is invariable.

The genitive case may be dependent and independent (absolute).

Dependent forms are used before nouns in the function of an attribute;

Absolute forms are used independently of the nouns to which

they logically refer and can perform different functions:

My friend’s is a happy life (subject);

This watch is Mary’s (predicative) ;

I’ve lost my pen; I’ll take Mary’s (object) ;

She went to the baker’s (adverbial modifier).

9. 
   The noun: category of number
   

This category is based on the binary opposition “the singular :: the plural”.

The singular is the unmarked member of the opposition as

practically in all cases it is represented by the absence any differential feature in its form.

The plural is derived mostly with the help of the suffix –(e)s

---

.

There are some other models of forming the plural:

1. 
   voicing of the final consonant plus + - s: a wife – wives, a path – paths;
   
2. 
   change of the root vowel: a foot – feet;
   
3. 
   use of the suffix –en: an ox – oxen; the root vowel can be changed: a brother – brethren;
   
4. 
   no changes in the plural: a sheep – sheep.
   

The singular form turns out to be the unmarked member as

its meaning is not so distinct and can be represented in different variants.
The number opposition can be neutralized when the unmarked member (the singular)

renders the meaning of the marked one (the plural).

This phenomenon is observed in sentences where

the noun is used in the generic meaning: The lion lives in Africa.
For the category of number, the semantic characteristics of the noun are of primary importance.

• 
  Countable nouns (denoting living beings and lifeless things, abstract discrete notions)
  

can be used both in the singular and in the plural; uncountable nouns (including abstract nouns

denoting non-discrete notions, material nouns, proper names) do not admit of the plural.

• 
  Nouns which have no plural but only the singular are often referred to as
  

“Singularia Tantum”. (“Pluralia Tantum” – наоборот).
Special attention should be paid to collective nouns (government, family, audience, police),

which express a certain set of things as one whole.

They display various properties as far as the category of number is concerned.

Some of them can be used both in the singular and in the plural.

10. 
    The problem of notional and formal parts of speech
    

The main points of difference between them are considered to be as follows:

1. 
   Notional parts of speech have the function of nomination,
   

they give names to extralinguistic phenomena and denote things, actions, qualities, etc.

Formal parts of speech have no nominating function. Prepositions, articles,

conjunctions do not name anything; they mostly denote relations and connections

between notional words.

2. 
   Notional parts of speech are characterized by a certain paradigm,
   

they have some grammatical categories. Formal words are invariable.

3. 
   Notional words are very numerous and their number is constantly growing.
   

It means that their class is open in membership. Formal words are much fewer in number –

there are about 150 words of the kind in English, and they are closed in membership,

as new formal words appear in language rather seldom.

4. 
   Notional parts of speech are characterized by a much smaller frequency than formal words.
   

The latter are used much more frequently.
5) The lexical meaning of notional words is easily distinguished from their grammatical one.

E.g. the lexical meaning of the word to run is to move quickly, while its grammatical meaning is that of process.

The lexical meaning of formal parts of speech is usually rather vague and, in many cases,

can’t be formulated outside the context. What is more, some linguists think that such typical

formal parts of speech as prepositions and conjunctions have no lexical meaning at all.

6) Notional words are usually stressed while formal words are unstressed, as a rule.

7) Notional words can be used as the head elements of phrases:

in the evening sunlight, the wild white cherry trees, stood in the middle of the mantelpiece (R. Pilcher);

formal words do not occur in this role.

BUT:

Some notional parts of speech include words that have no lexical meaning – e.g. auxiliary verbs, the link verb to be.

A lot of notional words are invariable (e.g. uncountable abstract nouns, names of material;

some modal verbs; relative adjectives).

Pronouns are mostly described as notional parts of speech but they have no function of nomination –

---

they don’t name things and properties but only point to them. On the other hand,

particles are considered to be a formal part of speech,

but their lexical meaning is usually rather vivid: only, even, just, indeed, etc.

11. 
    The problem of English article. Functions of article
    

The problem of the place of the article in language is represented by two main theories.

1. 
   The article is a formal element, a kind of morpheme or, if a word, an auxiliary word.
   

This point of view is proved by the following argument:

the article is the morphological sign of the noun, it has no lexical meaning of its own.

2) The article is a separate word and has its own meaningful role in the sentence.
The article modifies the noun, between the article and the noun there is a syntactic connection

which is proved by the possibility of using some pronouns instead of articles:

a → some, the → this, that. However, this kind of transformation is impossible for analytical forms.

So, it seems more reasonable to treat the article as a word, not as a morpheme.

Another aspect of the problem is: what part of speech does the article represent?

Linguists belonging to the classical school of grammar used to include the article into the group of pronouns:

• 
  a was considered to be an indefinite pronoun, the – a definite one (H. Sweet, O. Jespersen).
  
• 
  Some treated it as an adjective (G. Curme).
  
• 
  Most Russian linguists take the article to be a separate, specific part of speech (A.I. Smirnitsky, I.P. Ivanova, B.A. Ilyish).
  

In modern grammars the article is often included into the group of determiners together

with some pronouns, numerals and adjectives (E. Hall).
The morphological function of the article is its use as the marker of the noun.

The articles show what kind of noun we deal with – proper or common; class, abstract or material;

countable or uncountable. E.g. the opposition “absence of the article :: the indefinite article”

manifests the difference between material and class nouns:

glass – стекло, a glass – стакан; iron - железо, an iron – утюг.

The indefinite article helps us to turn proper names into common nouns:

Hercules - aHercules (необычайно сильный человек)

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