O.V. Alexandrova and T.A. Komova.

pronouns are divided into.(like Ilyish but lacking conjunctive, defining and having universal)

N.A. Kobrina describes the following sets of pronouns:

1) personal; 2) possessive; 3) reflexive; 4) reciprocal; 5) relative

(often subdivided into relative proper, interrogative and conjunctive) ;

6) demonstrative (that, this, those, these, such, so) ;

7) universal (all, each, both, either, neither, every, everything, everybody, everyone) –

sometimes they are called quantitative; 8) detaching (разделительные) (other, another);

9) indefinite, including three groups: assertive

(утверждающие наличие неопределенного количества или качества) –

some, something, somebody, someone, one; non-assertive

(некатегоричной констатации или утверждение чего-то с оттенком безразличия) –

any, etc.; negative – no, nobody, nothing, no one, none.

26. 
    The sentence, its definition and essential features
    

1. 
   The most essential feature of the sentence is predication, or predicativity.
   

Due to this feature the sentence becomes a unit of communication.

The first definition deals with some notions of logic: the sentence consists of the logical subject

(what is told about in the sentence) and the logical predicate

(what is told about the subject – its quality, action, state, etc.).

The relation between the logical subject and the logical predicate is predication.

A typical example of predication is the relation between the grammatical subject and predicate:

Violet poured the coffee.

2. 
   Another important feature of the sentence which has been described by representatives of the semantic
   

trend in syntax is that the sentence is a unit of nomination. Words have a similar function too,

but there is considerable difference between words and sentences in this respect:

words nominate things (in the widest meaning), while a sentence nominates some situation.

3. 
   Unlike words, the sentence does not exist in language as a ready-made unit.
   

It is determined by man’s ability to display creativity in the use of language.

Grammatical patterns whose number is limited and definite in any language are always filled with new contents.

Some exceptions are represented by phraseological units, proverbs, sayings: Let me see.

4. 
   Every sentence has a form. The notion of form includes several aspects.
   

First of all, a sentence is created in accordance with some structural model;

the number of such models is limited and specific for any language. An English sentence normally contains

two principal parts: the subject and the predicate.

5. 
   Each sentence is characterized by a certain intonation.
   

It separates one sentence from another; besides, it renders essential communicative meanings.

Due to the intonation, we can easily distinguish between a declarative

and an interrogative sentence with identical structures:

It is late. It is  late?

6. 
   The sentence is the basic unit of communication.
   

The smaller units of language (words, morphemes, phrases)

can’t render thoughts. As to the sentence, it always states or denies the existence of some objects,

their properties, relations, etc.

G.G. Pocheptzov analyzed them and described three aspects of the sentence:

1. 
   structural – it deals with the form of the sentence,
   

different grammatical meanings of the sentence and its components;

2. 
   semantic – it describes the very meaning of the sentence and the structure of this meaning;
   
3. 
   pragmatic – it is connected with the use of the sentence –
   

---

here we take into account the communicative purpose of the sentence and other communicative meanings.

There is a problem whether negative sentences represent a separate grammatical type.

The difficulty is that English employs a lot of ways to express the meaning of negation:

the use of the particle not (which can be found not only within the limits of the predicate),

of negative pronouns and adverbs (nobody, nowhere), of adverbs with a negative meaning (hardly),

of the preposition without etc.

So it seems more reasonable to treat a negative sentence not as a grammatical type but as a semantic one.

27. 
    One-member and elliptical sentences. Barkhudarov`s approach to such sentences
    

One-member sentences have only one main part but they don’t need any supply:

I’ve always wanted to go to Egypt all my life. The Nile and the pyramids and the sand …

The main part of a one-member sentence can be expressed by:

• A noun: Midnight. Such sentences are nominal, they state the existence of something.

They are mostly used in descriptions or stage directions:

White walls, marbled floor; her dressing table, draped in frill white muslin;

• An adjective: Marvelous! Such sentences are generally used in conversation to

express emotion unless they are titles of books: Impossible.

• A prepositional phrase: In the garden restaurant of a hotel in London.

They are used in stage directions.

• A verbal: To be lonely and grow older and older, yearning for a soul to speak to!

This type of sentence is mostly used to describe emotions: Poor fellow!

• Imperative sentences with no subject of the action are also considered

to be a variety of a one-member sentence by some linguists,

though the predicate features of the main part seem rather vivid:

Get away from me! Don’t say that!

• Interrogative constructions beginning with Why/Why not…? :

“Why suppose? Everything’s settled.”

• The words Yes and No.

• Modal words.

• Expressions of politeness: Thank you. Never mind. Sorry.

• The interrogative pronoun what as the main clause:

What if he were standing barefoot on the far North Pole?
One-member sentences should not be mixed with elliptical sentences in which one or more parts are left out

but can be easily reconstructed with the help of the context.

The main sphere of elliptical sentences is dialogue. Besides, they are used in newspaper headings,

telegrammes and advertisements. There are some structural varieties of elliptical sentences built of:

• The predicate or its part: What’s his name? – Larry. (R. Pilcher)

• The subject: Where is he now? – Oh, in Edinburgh. – And Henry? (R. Pilcher)

• Secondary parts: How long has she been here? – Only a moment. (R. Pilcher) –

adverbial modifier of time; Where do you live? – Pembroke Gardens. (R. Pilcher) –

adverbial modifier of place; We’re not an ancient family. –

Ancient enough. (R. Pilcher) – attribute.

Barkhudarov divides sentences of the kind into two groups:

1. 
   syntagmatically restored; in elliptical sentences of this variety the missing part
   

can be reconstructed with the help of the context – the same sentence.

In most cases we are to make use of the preceding context:

She was proud of her father having been a staff officer

and her husband a colonel in the Medical Service.

The elliptical sentence can be reconstructed by means of the previous sentence: .

It is especially typical of dialogue:

“If you please, I’m looking for the dog.” “Dog?” says he. “What dog?”

2. 
   paradigmatically restored. To reconstruct such a sentence we can’t rely on the context
   

---

as we won’t find in it the missing words. We are to take into account constructions existing in language,

in other words, our general knowledge of the language:

A sunny midsummer day. [It was… ] “Married?” [Are you… ?]

So the type of syntagmatically restored elliptical sentences corresponds to elliptical,

or incomplete sentences in the traditional classification;

as to the paradigmatically restored ones, they include both traditionally called

elliptical and one-member sentences.

28. 
    Communicative types of sentences. Potheptsov`s classification of sentences
    

The sentence is a unit of communication, so its classification can be based on the communicative principle,

i.e. the purpose of communication.

Each of these types exists in its affirmative and negative varieties and has a specific meaning,

peculiarities of order of words and the use of modal words, mood of the finite verb, intonation.

The declarative sentence expresses a statement. The order of words is usually direct,

but sometimes inversion is observed. The modal words are used frequently.

The verb is used either in the indicative or subjunctive mood. The intonation is generally falling.

The imperative sentence expresses inducement to perform an action.

It’s hardly possible to characterize the order of words in a typical sentence of the kind,

as the subject is usually missing. If it is used, the order of words is direct in affirmative sentences

and indirect in negative ones.

The interrogative sentence expresses a request for the information wanted by the speaker from the listener.

In these sentences either the indicative or subjunctive mood is used.

There are several types of questions which differ in peculiarities of word order and intonation.

The use of modal words is limited, as certainly, surely, etc. are not to be found in questions.

The exception is the word indeed.

G.G. Potchepstov’s classification is primarily based on the structural principle.

Besides, he takes into consideration the peculiarities of the contents of sentences.

He divides sentences into two types: sentences proper and quasi-sentences.

Sentences proper are units of communication, they contain both the main parts

(with the exception of one-member sentences)

and are subdivided into some groups according to the purpose of utterance:

declarative, interrogative, imperative and optative (the latter expressing wish, e.g. If John came…)

Quasi-sentences don’t express a complete thought, they have neither subject nor predicate.

They also include some groups: vocative sentences (used in direct address, e.g. John!),

interjectional sentences (expressing emotions, e.g. Oh!) and metacommunicative sentences

(used for starting of finishing communication, e.g. Good day!) In speech they can substitute

for a sentence as they are characterized by intonation and can function in an isolated position.

They have no nominative meaning and can render implicit evaluation: the vocative John!

pronounced with different shades of intonation can express admiration or reproach, or indignation.

Quasi-sentences are easily replaced by non-linguistic signals: instead of saying

Good morning we can just smile, in order to attract someone’s attention we can cough or knock.

29. 
    Actual division of the sentence
    

There exists the so-called actual division of the sentence, or functional sentence perspective.

The purpose of this division is to reveal the correlative significance of the words in a sentence

from the point of view of their informative role.

The sentence can be divided into two sections:

1. 
   theme – expresses the starting point of communication, denotes an object or a phenomenon
   

about which something is said.

2)rheme – contains the new information for whose sake the sentence is created.

---

The theory of actual division of the sentence is closely connected

with the logical analysis of the utterance, the logical categories of subject and predicate correspond to

the linguistic categories of theme and rheme respectively.

The theme often coincides with the grammatical subject of the sentence:

The old man stood for a little while in deep silence.

The correlation between the syntactic and actual divisions can also be reverse:

the theme is expressed by the predicate and the rheme by the subject:

At the top of the stairs, in the shade of the awning, stood a low table.

It is not always easy to divide a sentence into the theme and the rheme, as a rule,

there are also some transitional elements which have various degrees of informative value.

Language employs various means to differentiate between the theme and the rheme.

The theme is normally placed at the beginning of the sentence, the rheme is at its end.
The English means of expressing the rheme:

• 
  Lexical – the use of particles (Even John sucked)
  
• 
  Phonetic – sentence stress (John sucked!)
  
• 
  Grammatical
  

1. 
   The use of the indef. Article (The door opened, an old woman came)
   
2. 
   The construction (there is/there are)
   
3. 
   The emphatic constructions (It was John who sucked it)
   

30. 
    The theory of parts of sentence, its drawbacks
    

There are several ways of analyzing the sentence. The most traditional approach is its analysis

in terms of the parts of the sentence, or the functional model of the sentence.

There are two main problems concerning the theory of parts of the sentence:

1) correlation between the main and the secondary parts;

2) correlation between parts of the sentence and parts of speech.

What parts of the sentence should be considered main, or principal?

Traditional grammar states that these are the subject and the predicate because

the predicative relation on which the sentence is based is created between them.

So, they may be called the backbone of the sentence.

But which ranks higher, the subject or the predicate?

According to traditional grammar, the predicate is grammatically dependent on the subject,

it agrees with the subject in person, number and gender. From this point of view

these two parts of the sentence can hardly be treated on the same level and the predicate can

hardly be referred to as a main part.

Neither the subject nor the predicate can be removed as the whole sentence would be destroyed.

This seems to be another proof of their being the main parts.

However, the sentence can sometimes become incorrect if a secondary part is dropped:

She closed her eyes. She was there. This makes objects and adverbial modifiers close to the main parts.

On the other hand, adverbial modifiers and sometimes objects can refer not to one word

but to the whole sentence, in this way they acquire some relative independence and this also puts them

close to the main parts: In the hall a lot of guests were dancing and talking.
Besides, the very notion “parts of the sentence” is not clear-cut. Sometimes it is rather difficult to decide

whether we deal with one or two different parts of the sentence.

E.g.: I want to know. He likes to sing.

In these cases, the infinitive can be treated both as a part of the predicate and as an object.

It’s hardly possible to say which of these views is correct.

31. 
    The compound nominal predicate
    

expresses a state or a quality of a person or thing which is the referent of the subject.

It can also denote the class to which this person or thing belongs.

It consists of a link verb and a predicative which is expressed in many ways,

but most often by a noun or an adjective. The link verb expresses the grammatical categories of the predicate –

---

its tense, mood, person, number. The most frequent link is the verb to be which has completely lost

its lexical meaning.

Other links contain their lexical meanings to some extent, but these meanings differ from the primary ones.

So all the link verbs can perform other syntactic functions, i.e. be used as notional verbs. As to their lexical meaning

link verbs are divided into those of being and remaining (be, remain, feel, keep, appear) and becoming

(become, get, turn, go, grow).

There are cases when the link verb in the active voice fully retains its lexical meaning and is followed by the predicative

which contains the main information:

In the climate of the times, danger was everywhere and no man’s wife lived free from the fear of it.

32. 1   2   3   4   5

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