The problem of stative

Words denoting state and used mainly as predicatives were first identified as a separate part of speech on the

Russian material by L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov.

B.A. Ilyish described statives according to the three criteria:

Meaning. It expresses a passing state of a person or thing.

Form. Statives are invariable. As for their word-building pattern, most statives contain the prefix a-:

asleep, afraid, aware, alive, ashamed, ablaze, adrift, afoot, awake, afire, aflame, etc.

Function. They are characterized by combinability with link verbs, nouns and adverbs:

is afraid, the man alive, fast asleep. In the sentence they are mostly used as predicatives

and usually combine with the verb to be: He is awake. Occasionally other links can be found:

He felt ashamed. He fell asleep. They are also used as objective predicatives and as attributes,

both in postposition and in pre-position: an alert manner, an aloof character, a somewhat afraid soldier,

the wide awake patient.
However, most linguists consider such words to represent not a separate part of speech, but a specific group

of adjectives.

The arguments in favour of this point of view are as follows:

Meaning. A number of words generally described as typical adjectives also express some temporary state:

happy, hungry, active, busy, etc.

Form. Some statives do not contain the prefix a-: glad, ill, sorry, well, worth.

So this prefix is not a universal distinctive feature of the words in question.

Though these words are invariable, they are capable of expressing comparison with the help of the words more and most:

The two main meals of the day, lunch and dinner, are both more or less alike.

Jack was the one most aware of the delicate situation.

Sometimes the synthetic forms of the comparative and superlative degrees are also found:

You were sorry if you did something on purpose, but no sorrier if you did it by accident. (G.Raverat)

Function. The combinability of statives practically coincides with that of adjectives.

The same can be said about their syntactic functions:

Only the number of children and babies has increased, but they were a sorrysight. (L. Pearse).

So it seems to be more reasonable to treat statives as a specific group of adjectives. Some of them are closer to adverbs (afoot, ashore, etc.)

19. 
    The verb as a part of speech. The verb: the problem of perfect
    

Meaning	Categories	Function	Function proper
Process. Includes action, state, existence of thing or its belonging to some class.	-person -number -tense -aspect (вид) -voice -mood -correlation (perfect/non-perfect)	Combines with: Nouns (played football) Pronouns (saw her) Adverbs (speaks fluently) Adjectives (married young)	The category of aspect denotes the character of the action from the point of view of its progress or its completion, which is manifested in a certain set of forms. In Russian: perfective/imperfective

* The verb in the finite form is always used as predicate

The problem of perfect

The essence of the perfect forms has been the matter of discussion for rather long time

There are 3 approaches to this problem

1. 
   Perfect is a specific tense form
   

It denotes a secondary temporal characteristic of an action

---

It shows that an action precedes another action or situation in the present, past or future (H. Sweet, G. Poutsma)
But in this case such forms as Pr.Perf, Past.Perf would be combinations of 2 different tenses.

It is hardly correct from the grammatical point of view

2. 
   Perfect is a specific aspect form (M. Deutschbein)
   

Resultative aspect (B.Ilysh)

Retrospective aspect (G.Vorontsova)
But perfect cannot be an aspect as perf.continuous forms would express 2 different aspect

at the same time which is grammatically incorrect

3. 
   It is a separate category of time relation (A. Smirnitskiy)
   
4. 
   The category of correlation (B.Ilyish)
   

It is based on the binary opposition Perfect::non-perf.

Is marked because

It has a special model

(to have+P2)

and special meaning – precedence

20. 
    The category of tense
    

the problem of number of tenses-

In normative grammars the English verb is often described as having 16 tenses. But,

strictly speaking, the terms Continuous and Perfect do noy imply the notion of time

and express other grammatical categories.

Besides there is no correspondence between the tenses and their meanings.

Present Perfect is a present tense but it expresses actions performed in the past.

The sphere of present tense is indefinitely large, e.g. The Earth goes round the Sun.

The action described in this sentence reflects not only the present proper, it began indefinitely

long ago and will indefinitely long in the future.
the problem of future tense

-some grammarians deny the existence of the future tense (O. Jesperson, L. Barkhudarov)

The main argument: shall and will preserve the original lexical meaning( shall-obligation, will- volition)

So, they are not analytical forms but phrases consisting of meaningful words

However, most linguists admit the existence of forms of the future as shall and will lack

their lexical meaning in many contexts.
There is a tendency to use will instead of shall in the 1^st person

To express a future action people use will for all the person (this element has no lex.meaning)
The problem of the future-in-the-past tenses

Some linguists try to prove that f-i-t-p forms are not tenses

A. Smirnitskiy considered them to be forms of the subjunctive mood

I. Ivanova put forward the theory of temporal centers

The nuclear of this theory is the present temporal centre – the moment of speaking

(around it the following tenses are concentrated)

Present Continuous

Present Indefinite

Present Perfect these tenses are independent

Present Perfect Continuous

Past Indefinite

Future Indefinite
There is also the past temporal centre around which we find the following tenses:

Past Continuous

Past Indefinite

Past Perfect these are dependent tenses

Past Perfect Continuous

F-i-t-p
Neutralizationintenses

Случаи, при которых конструкция Present Indefinite может представить будущее:

A bus leaves in 5 o`clock.

Present tense can also be used to render past actions:

• 
  Historic present: вчера иду и вижу
  
• 
  Newspaper Headlines: Pope suffers stroke. Dies in sleep
  
• 
  We the verbs to hear, to tell, to forget
  

---

21. 
    The category of aspect
    

Is based on the binary opposition

common::continuous

write, is writing

has has been

written writing

• 
  The common aspect is the unmarked member of opposition
  
• 
  The continuous form is the marked one as it has the model “to be+P1”
  

and a special meaning of an action going on continually within a certain period of time
Other approaches:

• 
  H. Sweet and O. Jesperson considered continuous forms to be tense forms.
  

Their meaning is “an action going on simultaneously with another action”

BUT:

• 
  Forms wrote::was writing do not differ in tense
  
• 
  The continuous forms do not always express simultaneity with another action
  

“What is he doing? He is reading”

22. 
    The category of mood
    

Expresses the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker, or modality

We have 3 moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive

23. 
    The category of voice
    

Expresses the relation of the action to the subject and the object of the action

The form of the verb shows whether the referent of the subject is the doer of the action

Traditionally 2 voices are recognized in English: Active & Passive

Active	Passive
Expresses an action performed by the referent of the subject The action can be directed to the object or locked in itself He bought a dictionary The child was crying It is unmarked member because has no special model	Expresses an action directed to the subject of the sentence It is marked member ad it has a special model (to be+P2) * In spoken English the verbs to get and to become are also used

But mostly such constructions are treated as the compound nominal predicate
Neutralization of the voice opposition

• 
  The active voice can render the passive meaning:
  

• 
  The vegetables were cooking
  
• 
  There are birds to watch and fish to catch (use of verbals)
  

The problem of the pattern “To be+P2”

The door was shut when I went…

-traditionally – it is the compound nom.predicate

-another view: actional passive or statal passive (we don`t know),

suggested by Pr. Vorontsova and Barkhudarov
Other voices:

The reflexive (with reflexive pronouns) – remembered himself

The reciprocal (with reciprocal pronouns) – hated each other

The middle (active in form, but passive in meaning) – the door shut

24. 
    The adverb and its types
    

Meaning	Form	Function
Some adverbs indicate time or place of the action (yesterday, there) While others indicate the degree of a property(very)- Iliysh says	Most adverbs are invariable, some of them have degrees of comparison: fast-fster-the fastest Some are formed with the help of the suffix: -ly: beautifully -ways: sideways -ward: afterwards -wise: otherwise	Combined with: Verbs(smiled happily) Adjectives(extremely dull) Noun(rare: the then president, the up train) In sentences they are adv.modifiers Occasionally: attribute ( he had seen her in enough films)

Problem of degrees of comparison

The place of the adverb in the system of parts of speech is not clear enough.

---

Traditionally it is considered to be a notional part of speech alongside with the noun, the verb

and the adjective.

But the fact that most adverbs are invariable H. Sweet include it into the group of indeclinable

words (particles) and treat them at the same level as prepositions, conjunctions interjections

O. Jespersen also included adverbs into the group of particles: in his opinion, the words

«and, immediately, up» belong to the same group

Differentiation between adverbs and other parts of speech

The qualitative adverbs are formed by means of the suffix -ly.

However, there are a number of adj-s in English containing the same suffix

Some of them derived from nouns denoting period of time (weekly, daily)

Other derived from nouns denoting human beings

and expressing typical features of these people (friendly, womanly)

The cause of these peculiarities is to be found in Old English which had 2 diff.suffixes

-lic (adj), -lice (adv)

In the course of time due to some phonetic processes the suffixes acquired similar phonetic

and graphic forms
There are so called flat adverbs (forms coincide with adjectives ones- late, hard)

Context will help to understand what is given

Nowadays we have 5 basic types of adverbs:

Adverbs of time, (never, lately, just, always, recently)
Adverbs of manner,( here, there, nowhere, everywhere, out, in)
Adverbs of degree, (slowly, quickly, sadly, calmly, politely)
Adverbs of place, (almost, quite, nearly, too, enough, just)
Adverbs of frequency (never, always, rarely, sometimes, normally)
* A conjunctive adverb is a type of adverb that joins two independent sentences or clauses of any kind.

This type of adverb is used to connect two parts into one longer sentence.
These parts can be whole sentences that need to be connected into one longer sentence or

smaller clauses that need to be connected as well.

Adverbs usually modify one verb, but conjunctive adverbs modify entire sentences

because they connect larger parts than just one word.
Conjunctive adverbs serve different functions, such as:

addition, comparison, concession, contrast, emphasis, summarize, illustrate a point, or signify time.
Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect ideas, and to form larger thoughts with longer sentences.

These sentences are divided by a semicolon (;)

25. 
    The pronoun and its types
    

Meaning	Form	Function
Pronouns point to things and properties without naming them Pronouns point to living beings, lifeless things, qualities, quantities, they can express relation of things to some other things, or place or time.	Some pronouns have the category of number (that – those, other - others), some have the category of case. This category is represented by different paradigms with different pronouns: somebody – somebody’s (common – genitive), I – me (nominative – objective). Some pronouns are invariable (both, what, anything)	Combines with verbs (tell him, saw nobody), while others make phrases with nouns (my friend). Some of them are used as subjects or objects, others mostly as attributes.

Pronouns are divided into several classes differing in their lexical meanings,

morphological and syntactic properties.

The basic principle of their classification is mainly semantic.

---

B.A. Ilyish contains the following types:

1) personal;

2) possessive;

3) reflexive;

4) reciprocal;

5) demonstrative;

6) interrogative; 9) defining

7) relative; 10) indefinite

8) conjunctive; 11) negative.

I.P. Ivanova suggests another view of classes of pronouns:

(like Iliysh but lacking reciprocal, conjunctive, defining, and having indefinite-personal)

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