The object, its classification

is a secondary part of the sentence, referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a noun,

a substantival pronoun, an adjective, a numeral or an adverb, and denoting a thing to which the action passes on,

which is a result of the action, in reference to which an action is committed or a property is manifested,

or denoting an action as object of another action (B.A. Ilyish).

This typical definition is based on two criteria:

1) the relation of an object to a certain part of speech; 2) the meaning of the object.

According to the traditional classification,

objects can be divided into direct, indirect and indirect prepositional.

In English it is much more difficult to identify a direct object than in Russian

because we are to rely on the meaning of the part of the sentence alone:

direct objects denote things and persons directly affected by the action.

We could add that such objects are used after transitive verbs

but in English transitivity is not a permanent feature of the verb;

practically any verb can be used as both transitive and intransitive:

I walk in the park every day. I walk my dog in the park every day.

However, sometimes it is not easy to state if a person or thing is directly affected by the action:

She helped me. The object seems to be direct; meanwhile, the sentence can be paraphrased like this:

She gave me her help, and in this case the pronoun me becomes an indirect object.

There are some other ways of classifying objects. H. Poutsma, later A.I. Smirnitsky

suggested dividing them into prepositional and non-prepositional.

Though this division presents no difficulty, its criterion can hardly be considered to be valid:

on the one hand, it is rather formal; on the other hand, being prepositional or non-prepositional

is not a feature of the object alone; any secondary part of the sentence can be described from this point of view;

meantime, the criterion of classification should reflect some specific characteristics of

the phenomenon under consideration.

G.G. Potcheptsov put forward another classification of objects which is based on the semantic principle,

i.e. on the degree of participating in the action.

He describes three types:

1. 
   affected object (дополнение объекта) – it is a thing or a person which is the object of the action.
   

It can be both prepositional and nonprepositional:

He saw me – He looked at me. He knows this – He knows of this.

2. 
   recipient object (дополнение адресата) – it expresses a person or a thing to which the action is directed.
   

It can also be used with or without any preposition: You’re offering me a sinecure.

He gathered a half-blown rose, and offered it to me.

3. 
   agent object (дополнение субъекта) – it denotes the doer of the action and occurs in sentences
   

with the verb in the passive voice. It is al-ways preceded by a preposition, by or with:

The house is covered with a vine.

Cognate object (внутреннее) is used after intransitive verbs. These objects are non-prepositional and are expressed

by a noun of the same root as the verb-predicate or having a similar lexical meaning.

These nouns are accompanied by an at-tribute: We lived long lives and loved long loves.

33. 
    The adverbial modifier and its types
    

It is a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a verb,

a verbal noun, an adjective, or an adverb, and serving to characterize an action or a property as

to its quality or intensity, or to indicate the way an action is done, the time, place, cause, purpose,

or condition, with which the action or the manifestation of the quality is connected (B.A. Ilyish).

---

Adverbial modifiers can be classified in several ways.

The most popular classification is based on the semantic principle.

From this point of view adverbial modifiers are classified differently;

• 
  V.L. Kaushanskaya:
  

1) of time; 2) of frequency; 3) of place and direction; 4) of manner; 5) of attendant circumstances;

6) of degree and measure; 7) of cause; 8) of result; 9) of condition; 10) of comparison; 11) of concession;

12) of purpose.

• 
  E.G. Khomyakova: (all but without frequency)
  
• 
  N.A. Kobrina: (all but instead of frequency-exception, of attendant circumstances and subsequent events)
  

The classification based on the morphological principle admits of no variants:

adverbial modifiers can be expressed by: 1) an adverb; 2) a noun with or without accompanying words;

4. 
   a prepositional phrase; 4) a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle or
   

a prepositional phrase with a subordinating conjunction;

5) a verbal used separately or in a phrase; 6) an absolute construction.

34. 
    The notion of inversion
    

The term “inversion” has sometimes been used to denote

an unusual position of a secondary part of the sentence, that is, if an object or an adverbial modifier.

Full inversion	Partial invesion
When the predicate is placed before the subj. in a declarative sentence. * In another moment down went Alice	* when a part of predicate is placed before the subj. in a declarative sentence * …did we realize…

+ double inversion – when the predicate is placed before the subj. but its parts exchange their positions

* So absorbed was he in his revelation that he almost missed what came next.

35. 
    nope
    
36. 
    The compound sentence
    

is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination expressed either syndetically or asyndetically.

The main semantic relations between the clauses are:

copulative (and, both, nor);

disjunctive (either … or, or; adverbs else, otherwise);

adversative (but, while, whereas; however, yet, still, nevertheless);

causative and consecutive (for, so; therefore, hence, thus, consequently, then).

The connection between clauses can be semantically marked and unmarked.

• 
  The unmarked coordinative connection is realized by the conjunction and, asyndetically.
  

The unmarked coordination is not specified semantically and

requires some transformation to expose its meaning:

The sun was unbearably hot, the hotel was uncomfortable… 

The sun was unbearably hot and the hotel was uncomfortable… (copulative).

The Prince had mighty friends and she was alone to begin with. 

The Prince had mighty friends but she was alone to begin with (adversative)

• 
  The marked coordination is expressed by other conjunctions and adverbial connectors.
  

The semantic nature of such coordination is more vivid.

37. 
    The complex sentence: types of sub.clauses
    

is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination.

It consists of two clauses at least, one of them being main, or principal, and others subordinate.

The subordinate clause is joined to the principal one either syndetically or asyndetically.

The syndetic coordination implies the use of special words – connectors;

they can be either conjunctions which do not perform the function of any part of the sentence

(since, if, because, as though, etc.) or connectives. The latter belong to the class of adverbs or pronouns;

their basic difference from conjunctions is that parallel with their connecting function

---

they perform the role of some part of the sentence (who, how, which, etc.).

Classifications of complex sentences are based on the classifications of subordinate clauses.

Several principles have been put forward as the grounds for these classifications,

the communicative criterion being one of them.

This criterion takes into account the communicative type of the clause in question –

whether it is declarative, or interrogative, or imperative.

Nowadays two classifications are mostly used: categorial and functional.

Categorial is based on the correspondence between clauses and parts of speech,

so it can also be termed as morphological. Within this classification three types of clauses are described:

noun-clauses,

adjective-clauses

adverb-clauses.

Clauses and parts of speech resemble each other from the point of view of the functions they can perform in the sentence.

What light there had been was already seeping from the sky, and she drove with headlights on and the windscreen

wipers working full tilt. (R. Pilcher) – a noun clause.

In normative grammars the classification of clauses is mostly based on the similarity of their functions with those

of the parts of the simple sentence. In accordance with these principles subordinate clauses are divided into

subject,

predicative,

object,

adverbial,

attributive,

appositional

parenthetical.

This classification is referred to as functional, or syntactic.

Within some of these types a number of varieties can be found –

the greatest variety is presented by types of adverbial clauses which agrees

with the variety of adverbial modifiers though this correlation is not isomorphic.

38. 
    The IC-model
    

At the beginning of the 20^th century linguists were interested in the procedure of sentence generating.

• 
  One of the attempts to interpret the process led to creation of the theory of immediate constituents
  

(the IC model) – модель непосредственных составляющих,

• 
  Was developed by Ch. Fries
  
• 
  The essence of the IC model is dividing the sentence on the binary principle.
  

1. 
   It is divided into group of subject (NP- noun phrase)
   

and the group of the predicate (VP- verb phrase)

2. 
   Then it is subdivided further and further at very level into 2 constituents
   

The IC model has 2 basic variants

• 
  The analytical IC diagram (как таблица)
  
• 
  The IC derivation tree (дерево зависимости)
  

The – determinative

There – adverb

39. 
    The phrase and its types
    

There are 2 main approaches to the definition of phrase.

Traditionally the phrase is defined as every combination of 2 or more words which is a grammatical unit (B.A.Ilyish)

• 
  The bright sun
  
• 
  Lived happily one element is the centre, the other is subordinated to it, both of them are notional words
  

• 
  Boys and girls based on cordination
  
• 
  Strict but just
  
• 
  In the street – contains only notional word
  

According to another approach, the phrase is a combination of at least 2 notional words making a grammatical unit based on subordination.

The problem is how to treat analytical forms (has written)

On the one hand they consist of 2 or more words so it seems to be a phrase

On the other hand the 1^st element of such formations have no lex.meaning so they can not be treated as phrase

---

The 2^nd opinion is more popular
Classification:

The most popular- morphological

The phrases are classified according to the parts of speech making them:
N+N (noun and noun)

A+N

V+N

Adv+A very easy

Pron+N my sister

Prep+N

V+Adv came lately
Bloomfield classification:

1. 
   Endocentric (one of phrase components may replace the whole group)
   

Tom&Mary ran away – Tom ran away. Mary ran away

Bloomfield based it on subordination and coordination

2. 
   Exocentric
   

Neither of their components can be used instead of the whole

Beside John, John ran

Bloomfield subdivided it into preposition and predicative

40. 
    Ways of expressing syntactic relations within the phrase
    

In phrases based on sub-on we can observe diff.ways of expressing syntactic relations:

Some of them can be found in Russian too
Яркое солнце весело смотрит на землю

1. 
   Agreement(согласование)
   

The subordinate word takes the form of the head word

In English its use is very limited, concerns only pronouns this and that (this house)

2. 
   Government(управление)
   

The use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by the headbword, but the forms do not coincide

It is also rare in English

3. 
   Adjoining(примыкание)- widely spread (played merrily, many people)
   
4. 
   Enclosure(замыкание) – the word between article and noun (the word is understood as attribute)
   

A beautiful garden

The above statement

5. 
   Order of words
   

• 
  Rather important for analytical language
  
• 
  The change of the word order within a phrase results in a new meaning:
  

A dog house::a house dog

A garden flower: a flower garden

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