1. 
   General notes on style and stylistics
   

General notes on style and stylistics Stylistics - is a branch of linguistics, which studies the principles, effect of choice and usage of different language elements in rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of communication

Style – "socially recognized and functionally conditioned internally united totality of the ways of using, selecting and combining the means of lingual intercourse in some national language". (V.V.Vinogradov)

- "a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication". (I.R.Galperin)

· "specific features of text type (what differentiates a group of homogeneous texts) or of a specific text (an individual text) " (Y.M.Skrebnev)

Fields of investigation

1. the aesthetic function of the language (poetry and imaginative prose);

2. expressive means of the language (poetry, fiction, oratory, informal intercourse);

3. synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea (change of wording = change in meaning. Ex: "the old man is dead" - "The gentleman well advanced in years attained the termination of his terrestrial existence" - "the ole bean he kicked the bucket");

Types of stylistic research and branches of stylistics Literary and linguistic stylistics

Both study the common ground of:

· variability of the literary language;

· the idiolect (individual speech) of the writer;

· specific laws of poetic speech.

Literary and linguistic stylistics

Literary stylistics:

· the composition of the work of art;

· literary genres;

· the writer's outlook

Lingua-stylistics:

· functional styles

· linguistic nature of expressive means

Types of stylistic research and branches of stylistics

· Comparative stylistics - contrastive study of more than one language.

· Decoding stylistics

· Each act of speech = a performer / sender + recipient

· The author does ENCODING (epoch, historical situation, personal, political views).

· The reader DECODES (interpretation).

Types of stylistic research and branches of stylistics

· Functional stylistics (the branch of lingua-stylistics) = deals with functional styles.

· Stylistic lexicology - semantic structure of the word and the interplay of connotativa and denotative meaning of the word in context.

· Stylistic grammar :

Stylistic morphology -stylistic potential of the specific grammatical forms and categories

Stylistic syntax - syntactic links, the order of words and etc.

Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines

· Stylistics and phonetics: Phonetics studies sounds, articulation, rhythmic and intonation. Stylistics concentrates on expressive sound combinations, intonational and rhythmic patterns.

· Stylistics and lexicology: Lexicology describes words, their origin, development, semantic and structural features. Stylistics also deals with words, but only those which are expressive in language or in speech. Stylistics and grammar: Grammar describes regularities of building words, word-combinations, sentences and texts. Stylistics restricts itself to those grammar regularities, which make language units expressive.

· Semasiology - the theory of sign, meaning.

· Psycholinguistics - mechanisms of speech production, process of word choice, structures, intonation

· Rhetorics - correctness, beauty and effectiveness of speech production

· Onomasiology (onomatology) - the theory of naming
2. Expressive means and stylistic devices
The expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and / or emotional intensification of the utterance.

The expressive means of a language can be found on all levels:​

• 
  Phonetic (vocal pitch, pauses, staccato pronunciation)​
  
• 
  Morphological (diminutive suffixes: e.g. girlie, piggy, doggy; author’s nonce words: e.g. He glasnosted his love affair with this movie star)​
  
• 
  Lexical (intensifiers : awfully, terribly, absolutely)​
  
• 
  Grammatical (e.g. I do know you! I’m very angry with that dog of yours!)​
  

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3. Functional styles of the English language

According to Galperin:

Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each style, however, can be recognized by one or more leading features which are especially conspicuous.

For instance the use of special terminology is a lexical characteristic of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognized.
Classification of Functional Styles of the English Language

1. The Belles - Lettres Functional Style.

a) poetry;

b) emotive prose;

c) drama;

2. The Newspaper Functional Style.

a) brief news items;

b) advertisments and announcements;

c) headlines;
3. The Scientific Prose Style.

a) exact sciences;

b) humanitarian sciences;

c) popular- science prose;

4. Publicistic Functional Style,

a) oratory;

b) essays;

c) articles in newspapers and magazines;

5. The Official Documents Functional Style.

a) diplomatic documents;

b) business letters;

c) military documents;

d) legal documents
4. G.N. Leech’s classification
Классификация средств выразительности по Личу
Он считал, что для средств выразительности характерно отклонение от языковой нормы. В своей классификации он рассматривает парадигматические и синтагматические отклонения от нормы. Однако многие исследователи являлись противниками подобного подхода, поскольку, с их точки зрения, большинство стилистических приемов не выходит за пределы языковой нормы.

The classification is built on the principle of distinction between the normal and deviant features in the language of literature.

Paradigmatic deviations (отклонения от нормы)

• 
  Paradigmatic items can be viewed vertically
  
• 
  Paradigmatic figures give the writer a choice from equivalent items, which are contrasted to the normal range of choices.
  

e.g. Normal: inches/feet/yards + away; deviant: farmyard away

Syntagmatic deviations

• 
  Syntagmatic items can be viewed horizontally.
  
• 
  A syntagmatic chain of language units provides a choice of equivalents to be made at different points in this chain , but the author imposes the same kind of choice in the same place.
  

E.g. Instead of a sentence like “Robert turned over a hoop in a circle” we have the intentional redundancy of “r” in “Robert Rowley rolled a round roll round”
5. I.R. Galperin’s classification
The classification suggested by Prof. Galperin is simply organised and very detailed. The subdivision of expressive means and stylistic devices based on the level-oriented approach:

1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices
onomatopoeia (direct and indirect* 8 вопрос): ding-dong; silver bells... tinkle, tinkle;
alliteration
rhyme (full, incomplete, compound or broken, eye rhyme, internal rhyme. Also, stanza rhymes: couplets, triple, cross, framing);
rhythm.

2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices
There are three big subdivisions in this class of devices and they all deal with the semantic nature of a word or phrase. However the criteria of selection of means for each subdivision are different and manifest different semantic processes.

I. The principle of classification is the interaction of different types of a word's meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal, and emotive.
A.Means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings:
metaphor
metonymy
irony
B.Means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings

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:
polysemy

zeugma (намеренное использование слова в предложении сразу в нескольких значениях) and pun (каламбур)
C.The third group comprises means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings:
interjections and exclamatory words:

epithet:

oxymoron: peopled desert, populous solitude, proud humility
D.The fourth group is based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings and includes:

antonomasia (троп, выражающийся в замене названия или имени указанием какой-нибудь существенной особенности предмета или отношения его к чему-либо) Mr. Facing-Both-Ways does not get very far in this world. (The Times)
II. The principle for distinguishing the second big subdivision according to Galperin is entirely different from the first one and is based on the interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously materialised in the context. This kind of interaction helps to call special attention to a certain feature of the object described. Here belong:
simile: treacherous as a snake, faithful as a dog, slow as a tortoise.

periphrasis: a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex. (women)

euphemism: In private I should call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words: 'Reckless disregard for truth'. (Galsworthy)

hyperbole: The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them light. (Dickens)
III. The third subdivision comprises stable word combinations in their interaction with the context:
cliches: clockwork precision, crushing defeat, the whip and carrot policy.

proverbs and sayings: Come! he said, milk's spilt. (Galsworthy)

epigrams: A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (Keats)

quotations: Ecclesiastes said, 'that all is vanity'. (Byron)

allusions: Shakespeare talks of the herald Mercury. (Byron)

decomposition of set phrases: You know which side the law's buttered. (Galsworthy)

3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices
Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices are not paradigmatic but syntagmatic or structural means. In defining syntactical devices Galperin proceeds from the following thesis: the structural elements have their own independent meaning and this meaning may affect the lexical meaning. In doing so it may impart a special contextual meaning to some of the lexical units.

inversion (several types)
detached constructions: She was lovely: all of her - delightful. (Dreiser)
parallel constructions
chiasmus (инверсия во второй половине фразы)
repetition
enumeration
suspense

6. Yu.M. Skrebnev’s classification

Skrebnev subdivided stylistics into paradigmatic stylistics (of units) and syntagmatic stylistics (of sequences.) He also adds one more level to phonetics, morphology, lexicology and syntax – semasiology (semantics).

I. Five branches of paradigmatic stylistics:

a) Phonetics (intentional non–standard spelling: graphons): I know these Eye–talians! (Lawrence)

b) Morphology (the use of one tense instead of another): What else do I remember? Let me see. There comes out of the cloud our house… (Dickens)

c) Lexicology (neutral; positive/elevated: poetic, official, professional; negative/degraded: colloquial, neologisms, jargon, slang, nonce–words, vulgar words)

d) Syntax: four types.

– Completeness of sentence structure: ellipsis, aposiopesis, one–member nominative sentences, redundancy

– Word order: inversion

–Communicative types of sentences: quasi–affirmative/interrogative/negative/imperative sentences

– Type of syntactic connection: detachment, parenthetic elements, asyndetic subordination and coordination

e) Semasiology (transfer of names or tropes (by Skrebnev “figures of replacement”): two groups: figures of quality and figures of quantity.

Figures of quantity

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: hyperbole: Tom was conducted through a maze of rooms and labyrinths of passages (Dickens); meosis (understatement, litotes): He was laughing at Lottie but not unkindly. (A.Hutchinson)

Figures of quality: metonymy (synecdoche and periphrasis): She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond of the bottle. (Christie);

metaphor (allusion, personification, antonomasia, allegory): Death is at the end of that devious, winding maze of paths…(Fr.Norris);

irony (explicit and implicit): Try this one, “The Eye of Osiris.” Great stuff. All about a mummy. Or Kennedy’s “Corpse on the Mat” – that’s nice and light and cheerful, like its title. (D.Sayers)

II. Syntagmatic stylistics:

a) Phonetics (alliteration, assonance, paronomasia, rhythm and meter, rhyme): As good as gold, Sense and Sensibility (J.Austen)

b) Morphology

c) Lexicology

d) Syntax (parallelism, anaphora, epiphora, framing, anadiplosis, chiasmus): There are so many sons who won’t have anything to do with their fathers, and so many fathers who won’t speak to their sons. (O.Wilde)

+e) Semasiology: figures of identity (simile, synonymous replacement): And then in a moment she would come to life and be as quick and restless as a monkey. (Galsworthy); figures of inequality (clarifying synonyms, climax, anti–climax, zeugma, pun, disguised tautology): A young girl who had a yellow smock and a cold in the head that did not go on too well together, was helping an old lady… (Priestley); and figures of contrast (oxymoron, antithesis): Of course, it was probably an open secret locally. (Christie)

7. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. General considerations
Standard English vocabulary is subdivided into:

1. Neutral words (understood and accepted by all English-speaking people)
The main source of synonymy and polysemy. Official, scientific, poetic field

2. Literary (mostly in written form)

Descriptions, considerations.

3. Colloquial (mostly encountered in oral speech)

colloquial words in written forms, types of discourse simulating everyday oral communication, dialogues, inner monologues of characters.
Literary vocabulary consists of:

1. Common literary. Most used in written form and in polished speech. Literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary and colloquial, can be formed which stand in contrasting relation.

2. Terms and learned words. Terms denote objects, processes, humanities, technique. The domain is the scientific functional style. Terms of general nature are interdisciplinary. Semantically narrow terms belong to a definite branch of science.

3. Poetic words. The stylistic function is to create poetic images and make speech elevated.

4. Archaic words. Words which are no more in use. These are historical words. Another group of archaisms is archaic words/forms proper – words outed by newer synonymic words. Obsolete words have gone completely out of usage though they are still recognized by the native speakers. The main function is to create a realistic background for historical works of literature.

5. Barbarisms and foreign words. These are words borrowed from other languages. The main function is to create a realistic background for stories, describe foreign customs, traditions.

6. Neologisms or nonce words. Most of them are usually terms. Marked with the start of technological revolution. Internet gave the language many new words.
Colloquial stratum of the word stock

These words mark the message as informal.

1. Common colloquial words. Part of standard English word stock. Can be used in written speech, but unacceptable in polite conversation or business correspondence. There are ways of forming colloquial words: contraction (pronounce only part of a words: pub – public house, ad – advertisement), amalgamation of two words in a single one (s’long – so long, c’mon – come on, gimme – give me), affixation (missy – miss, girlie – girl), compounding, composing and blending (legman – reporter, hanky-panky – children’s tricks, yellow belly – coward, motel – a hotel for people who travel by car).

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2. Slang. Sometimes described as the language of subcultures or the language of the streets. Hardly used in writing except for some stylistic effect the author wants to express. They are highly emotive and expressive; they lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations.

3. Jargonisms. They stand close to slang, they are substandard, expressive and emotive, but unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (professionalisms) or socially (jargonisms proper). Professionalisms are formed according to existing word building patterns. Jargonisms proper are characterized by similar linguistic features but differ in function and sphere of application. They originated from the thieves’ jargon (argot, cant) and served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated.

4. Professional words.

5. Dialectal words. They are used by people of a certain community living in a certain territory. They are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavor of the locality they belong to.

6. Vulgar words. Obscene words. They are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. The most popular images are food, money, sex, people’s appearances and characters.

8. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices

Aim: In the written speech a desired stylistic effect can be achieved thanks to a peculiar sound arrangement in words, specific rhythm and rhyme created by different syntactic patterns used
Phonetic exp. means: 1) instrumentation – the art of selecting and combining sounds in order to make utterances (устн. или письм. высказывание) expressive and melodic: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia 2) versification (стихосложение) – the art of writing verses; imaginative expression of emotion, thought or narrative, mostly in metrical form and often using figurative language: rhyme or the rhythmical arrangement of words

Alliteration (согласные)

It’s stylistically motivated repetition of consonants

Aim: imparting a meloding effect to the utterance

• 
  e.g. She sells sea shells on the sea shore
  as good as gold
  

Assonance (гласные)

It’s stylistically motivated repetition of stressed vowels

Aim: create a euphonious (благозвучный) effect and rhyme

• 
  e.g. The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain
  

Both alliteration and assonance can create the effect of euphony and cacophony (благозвучие/неблагозвучие)

Onomatopoeia (звукоподражание)

Sound imitation

Aim: at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder), by things (machines or tools), by people (sighing, singing) and by animals

• 
  Onomatopoeia can be: 1) direct: contained in words that imitate natural sounds: e.g. cuckoo, buzz, meow, roar, etc. 2) indirect – a combination of sounds to aim at making sounds of the utterance, an echo of its sense (sometimes called echo-writing) e.g. “And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” (E.A. Poe) – the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain:
  

Rhyme

The repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words.

Rhyming words are usually placed at a regular distance from each other

• 
  There are 1) full rhymes 2) incomplete rhymes: vowel and consonant rhymes
  
• 
  Compound/broken rhymes – modifications in rhyming sometimes go so far as to make one word rhyme with a combination of words; two or even three words rhyme with a corresponding two or three words e.g. "upon her honour - won her", "bottom –forgot them- shot him"
  
• 
  Eye-rhyme – the rhyme where the letters and not the sounds are identical e.g. love-prove, flood-brood
  
• 
  Internal rhyme – the rhyme where the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line e.g. I bring fresh showers upon the thirsting flowers
  
• 
  According to the variants of stress: 1) male rhyme – last syllables of the rhymed words are stressed 2) female – next syllables to the last are stressed 3) dactylic – the third syllables from the end are stressed
  
• 
  According to the ways rhymes arranged within the stanza (строфа): 1) couplets – aa 2) triplets – aaa 3) cross rhymes – abab 4) framing rhymes – abba 5) paired rhymes – aabb
  

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