Rhyme

The repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words

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  Foot – a division of the poetic line from stress to stress, which contains one stressed syllable and one or two unstressed syllables: 1) trochee |ˈtrəʊkiː| (хорей) – first syl – stressed, second – unstressed / –
  
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  iambus |æɪˈæmbəs| (ямб) – first syl – unstressed, second – stressed – /
  
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  dactyl (дактиль) – first – stressed, second – unstr, third – unstr / – –
  
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  amphibrach – first – unstr, second – stressed, third – unstr
  
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  anapest – first – unstr, second – unstr, third – stressed
  

9. Graphical expressive means and stylistic devices

The aim: to convey the emotions from oral speech that expressed by intonation and stress in the written form

What included in common: 1) emphatic use of punctuation 2) deliberate change of the spelling of the word 3) various types of print
Emphatic use of punctuation

All types of punctuation are used to express emphatic intonation of the speaker

Used in many syntactical stylistic devices (e.g. rhetorical questions, suspense) and may be not connected with any stylistic devices

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  Marks of exclamation (!) and interrogation (?) are of greater importance than any other marks. Their abundant use in the text is a sign of the text being emotional and expressive.
  
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  Emotional pauses are often reflected by a dash (–): Please – not that.
  
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  Suspension marks (dots …) reflect various emotional states of a character: disappointment, hesitation, embarrassment.
  
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  The absence of punctuation marks may also be meaningful (e.g. stream of consciousness – James Joyce)
  

Types of print
They are used to indicate the additional stress of the emphasized word or part of the word

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  Bold type
  
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  Italics
  
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  CAPITALIZATION / Capitalization
  
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  Hy-phe-na-tion (hyphen – дефис) – the way of reflecting person’s manner of speaking, which is often combined with other graphic EMs: e.g.“His wife,” I said. “W-I-F-E.”
  
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  S p a c e d l e t t e r s
  
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  M-m-multiplication – the repetition of the same letter or a combination of letters, helps to express person’s manner of speaking (e.g. Pleeeeeease don’t hurt me)
  

Change of spelling of a word

It’s graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation resulting in the violation of the accepted spelling e.g. gimme (give me), gonna (going to), etc.

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  It’s used to convey the sound and sometimes written peculiarities of the words and this way to highlight the character's age, social status, origin, etc.
  
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  It’s also good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication and informality of the speech
  

Often used in advertisements e.g. The Donut (doughnut) Place

10. Figures of substitution
Figures of substitution are subdivided into the figures of quality – metaphor, antonomasia, personification, allegory, epithet, metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism and irony; and figures of quantity – hyperbole, meiosis, litotes.

There is a family of figures of speech where one thing is substituted for another. Here they are: ·

Allegory:Allegory is a literary device used to express large, complex ideas in an approachable manner. Allegory allows writers to create some distance between themselves and the issues they are discussing, especially when those issues are strong critiques of political or societal realities Narrative using sustained metaphor. The Lord of the Flies by William Golding presents allegories about society, morality, and religion, to name a few. Specifically, the island represents the whole world, the conch stands for law and order, and the fire represents hope and destruction. ·

For example, 'chill' was originally a noun, a synonym for 'cold'. It has become a verb ('to chill vegetables') and, with the "-ly" ending, an adjective ('a chilly morning'). Most recently, 'chill' has become a verb, meaning roughly 'to relax'.

Antonomasia: Naming a person with other than their given name.

A lover - "Cassanova"

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A smart, scientific person - "Einstein"

· Euphemism: Substituting offensive words with gentle ones.

Passed away instead of died ·

Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things. As a literary device, metaphor creates implicit comparisons without the express use of “like” or “as.” Metaphor is a means of asserting that two things are identical in comparison rather than just similar.

Is there a black sheep in your family? ·

Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one object or idea takes the place of another with which it has a close association. In fact, metonymy means “change of name.” As a literary device, it is a way of replacing an object or idea with something related to it instead of stating what is actually meant.

I met him at the reception when he took me for a spin during a slow song. (Spin is metonymy for dance)

·Synecdoche: Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which, most often, a part of something is used to refer to its whole. For example, "The captain commands one hundred sails" is a synecdoche that uses "sails" to refer to ships—ships being the thing of which a sail is a part.

· personification Personification is a figure of speech in which an idea or thing is given human attributes and/or feelings or is spoken of as if it were human.

I like onions, but they don’t like me.

My phone is not cooperating with me today.

· epithet

Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing, or a person in such a way that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent than they actually are.

“Death lies on her like an untimely frost. Upon the sweetest flower of all the field…” (Romeo and Juliet).

· periphrasis

Periphrasis is both a grammatical principle and manner of speaking that uses more words than necessary to evoke a certain meaning. ... For example, a person might not know or remember the word for “bee” in a different language and instead say, “a yellow and black thing that makes honey.”

· hyperbole

Is exaggeration of dimensions or other properties of the object.

The shopping cost me a million dollars.

My dad will kill me when he comes home.

· meiosis

Meiosis examples are sometimes used in the sense of a synonym of litotes. ... For example, when Mercutio is wounded mortally and says, “ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch…” (Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare) it is a form of meiosis.

· litotes Litotes is a figure of speech featuring a phrase that utilizes negative wording or terms to express a positive assertion or statement.

They spent seven months apart; that’s no small amount of time. (i.e., That's a long time.)

They don’t exactly have an ordinary relationship. (i.e., Their relationship is different.)


11. Figures of combination.

Figures of combination are SD of semasiology. They are stylistically relevant semantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units belonging to the same or different language levels. So, the realization of the figures of combination is possible only in context. Frequently, these figures of speech are the result of the interaction of word meanings or the meanings of word-combinations, seldom – of paragraphs or larger text fragments.

There are three basic types of semantic relations between words, phrases, and utterances:

1) those involving similar (synonymous) meanings of such units. The speaker combines within an utterance or text the units whose meaning he/she considers similar, thus figures of identity (simile, specifying and substituting synonym) are formed;

2) those based on opposite (antonymous) meanings of the units. The speaker combines within an utterance or text two semantically contrasting units. As a result, figures of opposition (antithesis oxymoron) are formed;

3) those comprising somewhat different meanings of the units. The speaker combines within an utterance or text lexical units denoting different but close notions. As a result, the figures of unequality (pun zeugma climax anticlimax) are formed.

12. Peculiar use of set expressions.

Peculiar use of set expressions can also be named

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stylistic phraseology or phraseological stylistics, as it studies phraseological units in their no ordinary application in a text (the term phraseology was suggested by Soviet scholars, after a Swiss linguist Chales Bally who introduced the term «phraseologie» in the meaning of «a branch of Stylistics dealing with coherent word-combinations»).

All kinds of set phrases (phraseological units) generally possess the property of expressiveness. In linguistics, phraseology describes the context in which a word is used. This often includes typical usages/sequences, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and multi-word units.

Phraseological unit is a fixed word-combination in which the meaning if the whole doesn’t depend on the meaning of its components.

1) The cliché. A cliché is a phrase, expression, or idea that has been overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty, especially when at some time it was considered distinctively forceful or novel. It is generally used in a negative context and expressed by idioms.

«Cliché» applies also to almost any situation, subject, characterization, figure of speech, or object – in short, any sign – that has become overly familiar or commonplace. Because the novelty or frequency of an expression's use varies across different times and places, whether or not it is a cliché depends largely on who uses it, the context in which it is used, and who is making the judgment.

E.g. times are changing, as easy as a piece of cake, as wet as blood, as clear as day.

2) Proverbs and sayings.

A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good style, it may be known as an aphorism.

Typical stylistic features of proverbs (as Shirley Arora points out in The Perception of Proverbiality (1984)) are:

· alliteration (Forgive and forget)

· parallelism (Nothing ventured, nothing gained)

· rhyme (When the cat is away, the mice will play)

· ellipsis (Once bitten, twice shy)

A saying/a trite saying/expression is something that is said, notable in one respect or another.

E.g. willy-nilly, thumbs up/thumbs down, ugly duckling.

3) An epigram is a short poem with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement. They are among the best examples of the power of poetry to compress insight and wit.

In early English literature the short couplet poem was dominated by the poetic epigram and proverb. Since 1600, two successive lines of verse that rhyme with each other, known as a couplet featured as a part of the longer sonnet form, most notably in William Shakespeare's sonnets.

4) A quotation, also called a quote, is a fragment of a human expression, written or oral, which has been inserted into another human expression. This latter type of quotation is almost always taken from literature, though speech transcripts, film dialogues, and song lyrics are also common and valid sources.

E.g. The wisdom of the wise, and the experience of ages, may be preserved by quotation (Isaac D'Israeli, Curiosities of Literature: Quotation).

A typical, and perhaps ideal, quotation is usually short, concise and commonly only one sentence long.

5) Allusion is a stylistic device in which one refers covertly or indirectly to an object or circumstance that has occurred or existed in an external context. It is left to the reader or hearer to make the connection (Fowler). In the most traditional sense, allusion is a literary term, though the word also has come to encompass indirect references to any source, including film, art, or real events.

Allusions in English are commonly made to the Bible, nursery rhymes, myths, famous fictional or historical characters or events, and Shakespeare. They can be used in prose and poetry.

E.g. Christy didn’t spend money. She as no Scrooge, but she seldom purchased anything except the bare necessities.

13. General considerations on the syntactical level of stylistic analysis.

Stylistic syntax - aimed at finding out what sublanguage is involved and what expressive value a syntactical unit (sentence or other utterance) has, treated in abstraction from its environment.

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Sentence is a sequence of relatively independent lexical and phrasal units (units = words and word combinations).

One word can already be a complete sentence (“Spring.” “April.” etc.)

The difference between a word and a sentence is the structure of the sentence can be changed: it can be complete or incomplete, simple, compound, or

complex; its constituents, length, word order, as well as communicative type (assertion, negation, interrogation, exhortation) are variable.

In terms of sublanguage theory, we must decide what should be first in the central area and what should be in prepherrial areas. In other words, we have to consider what is a norm of the sentence and what is considered to be a deviant of the sentence.

Normal or neutral (most popular) structure of the sentence:

○ two-member sentence, containing subject and predicate and a few

○ secondary elements;

○ the order of words should be normal;

○ the function (the communicative purpose) of the sentence is expected to be consistent with its structure (it means a declarative sentence must express a statement and question sentence must express sentence)

○ nothing should be missing in the sentence

● Structure of deviant sentence:

○ From the viewpoint of quantitative characteristics of the syntactic structure, it is self-evident that there are only two possible varieties of deviations -

■ the absence of elements which are obligatory in a neutral construction;

■ excess of non essential elements

○ While dealing with a chain of sentences, the sequence of sentences constituting a text, we search for stylistic functions in the sequence of sentence forms.

○ With regard to the distribution of the elements we should look for and classify the stylistic value of various types of inversion.

○ By analyzing general syntactic meanings, communicative aims of sentences, stylistic effects of shifts in syntactic meaning of changes in the use of syntactic forms are established.

● 4 groups of classification of syntactic stylistic devices

○ reduction of the sentence model;

○ extension of the sentence model;

○ change of word-order;

○ transposition of sentence meaning.

14. SDs based on the reduction of the sentence model.

An elliptical sentence is such a syntactic structure in which there is no subject, or predicate, or both. The main parts of ES are omitted by the speaker intentionally in case when they are semantically redundant. Where did you go?

In contemporary prose Ellipsis is mainly used in dialogs where it is consciously employed by the author to reflect the natural omnitions characterised by oral colloquial speech. Often used in authors' remarks commenting the speech of a character.

In oral speech the phenomenon of ellipsis is rather norm than a special stylistic device. A speaker uses elliptical sentences in order to save needless efforts, to spare time and language means.

○ Elliptical sentences acquire expressiveness when they are used in emotive prose (or sometimes in poetry) as a means of imitating real colloquial speech, live talk or as a means of exposing a character's emotions.

● A nominative sentence is a variant of one-member structures: it has neither subject nor predicate.

Communicative functions. A sequence of nominative sentences makes for dynamic description of events. Sets of nominative sentences are used to expressively depict the time of the action, the place of the action, the atten-dant circumstances of the action, the participants of the action

Structural types of nominative sentences:

○ Unextended nominative sentences consisting of a single element. Morning. April. Problems.

○ Extended nominative sentences consisting of the basic component and one or more words modifying it. Nice morning. late April. Horribly great problems.

○ Multicomponent nominative sentences containing two or more basic elements. Late April and horribly great problems

Sentences consisting only of a nominal group, are semantically and communicatively self-sufficient. Isolated verbs, pro­ceeding from the ontological features of a verb as a part of speech, cannot be considered one-member sentences as they always rely on the context for their semantic fulfillment. The communicative function of a nominative sentence is a mere statement of the existence of an object, a phenomenon. The structural and semantic diversity of nominative sentences as well as their position and distribution within a certain context impart rather significant stylistic value to them. A sequence of nominative sentences makes for the dynamic description of the events, depiction of the time of the action, the place, the attendant circumstances, its participants, etc. Or on the contrary, the dissemination of nominative sentences into the context breaks the even flow of narration, highlights the very minute changes in the depicted situation, character’s mood, thoughts, recollections and emotions. A nominative sentence in final position sums up (logically or emotionally) the information of the passage.

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● Aposiopesis |ˌapə(ʊ)ˌsaɪəˈpiːsɪs| (break-in-the-narrative) is also realized through incompleteness of sentence structure, though this is of different structural and semantic nature. It appears when the speaker is unwilling to proceed and breaks off his narration abruptly. If you go on like this...

Aposiopesis is a common feature of colloquial speech. In literary discourse aposiopesis, like ellipsis and one-member sentences, is mostly to be found in dialogues, direct, indirect or represented speech. This stylistic device is used in emotive prose with the purpose of conveying speaker’s emotions without naming them directly or expressing such modal meanings as threat, warning, doubt, excitement, promise Aposiopesis, in a broad sense, is not confined only to the function of speech characterization. A writer may deliberately leave his whole work (a story, a novel, a play) incomplete (unfinished) thus making the readers to arrive at the conclusion predetermined by the whole semantic structure of the text on their own.

● Asyndeton бессоюзие is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives. We had heard planes coming, seen them pass overhead, watched them go far to the left, heard them bombing…

It becomes stylistically charged if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. Cutting off connecting words in asyndetic sentences helps to cre­ate the effect of tense, energetic, active prose.

● Parcelling парцеляция is intentional splitting of sentences into smaller parts separated by full stops. Oswald bates Rolf. Very much. Then the pain began. Slow. Methodical. And professional

15. SDs based on the extension of the sentence model.

Repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two or more times in close succession. Skillfully used and justified repetition never creates the redundancy of information. On the contrary, the additional stylistic meanings that arise as a result of repetition are indispensable elements of emotional and artistic impact upon the reader or listener. Repetition is a powerful means of emphasis, besides it adds rhythm and balance to the utterance.

Ordinary repetition. In ordinary repetition the repeated element has no definite place in the utterance.

I wake up and I’m alone and I walk round Warley and I am alone; and I talk with people and I am alone and I look at his face when I’m home and it’s dead (J. Braine).

Anaphora - identity of beginnings, initial elements.

There are many anaphora examples found in literature, and particularly in poetry, where the anaphora drives the pace of the poem

Epiphora - opposite of the anaphora, identical elements at the end of: sentences, paragraphs, chapters, stanzas.

Framing - repetition of some element at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, paragraph or stanza.

Polysyndeton многосоюзие – a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect.

And then you came with those mournful lips.

And with you came the whole of the world’s tears.

16. SDs based on the change of word-order.

Inversion is a syntactic phenomenon of the deliberate changing of word order in the initial sentence model. Word order is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages. In English it has peculiarities which have been caused by the concrete and specific way the language has developed. The English language has developed a fixed word order which in the great majority of cases shows without fails what is the Subject of the sentence. This fixed word order is Subject— Verb (Predicate) — Object (S—P—O).

This predominance of fixed word order makes conspicuous any change in the structure of the sentence and inevitably calls forth a modification in the stylistic meanings.

There are two types of inversion: grammatical and stylistic. Grammatical inversion is aimed at the change of the communicative type of sentence and has no stylistic value.

Stylistic inversion is aimed at logical or emotional intensification of a certain sentence element. It attaches the additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. It is always semantically and stylistically motivated:

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