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"Beautiful Galatea! They say she dyes her hair black? "Oh, no: her hair was already black when she bought it." (From the TV show "White parrot"[7, c. 96-100].) "There is a contrast between the expectations of the subject (based on his life experience) and the final realization. A phenomenon that seems natural is then unmasked as an absurdity or error and thus discredited" [9, p. 184].
"Deceived expectation" [7] in the style is called " the appearance of an unpredictable element against the background of the context, whichhas a high orderliness." This definition describes the mechanism of "deceived expectations" [7, c. 96-100] in the most General terms. Therefore, researchers interpret it differently. We share the point of view of those researchers who consider "deceived expectation" [7] as a meaningful category.
"The main argument in favor of this point of view is the fact that unpredictability can be external (the language unit of a statement – the language system) and internal (the language unit – its context). These types of " [7] unpredictability may coincide and may occur separately. but "deceived expectation" is only a function of the second kind of unpredictability. As a stylistic term, "deceived expectation" should characterize a special kind of additional meaning and, therefore, qualify as a meaningful category" [7, c. 96-100]. So, we can say that "deceived expectation" is a meaningful category, meaning the sudden substitution of the relations of identity (proximity) between the linguistic units of a given utterance for the relations of opposition (inequality). "Good films are dear to us, but sometimes bad ones are too expensive" (E. Meek) [10, c. 23-25].
"V. V. Ovsyannikov notes the following criteria for the allocation of deceived expectations" [11]:
1. Structural-semantic. Deceived expectation has a two-part "build-up- discharge" structure. In" build-up" [7], the values are related on the basis of identity (proximity) relations, "discharge" manifests the relationship of the opposite (inequality) " [7].
2. "Composite. The deceived expectation is realized in speech as a compositional-linguistic unity, in which the semantic transposition is accompanied by a compositional one. It is due to this feature that this unity is easily isolated from the context" [7], functioning in the work of art as a micro anecdote.
3. Communicative. From the point of view of the "addressee – message – addressee" [7, c. 96-100] communicative chain, a deceived expectation can be represented as a statement in which two opposite communicative attitudes are realized. They can either really be present, or the illusion of their simultaneous presence is created. Moreover, communication can be both internally textual ("character-character") and externally textual ("author-reader" [4, c. 80-85]).
If we talk about the connection of the paradox in the speech genres of satire and humor with the "deceived expectation" [7], then we should take into account the psychological aspect of speechperception. human behavior is characterized by the ability to use the experience of the past to predict the upcoming situation. This is also appropriate for the recipient of the language game. Some statements the perceiver expects with greater probability, others with less, and the subjective probability may not coincide with the objective. A true gentleman always straightens his tie if a woman passes by the ditch. (From the TV show "Around laughter" [7].) The more unexpected the situation for the recipient, the stronger the emotional impact. "According to the law of quantity of information, discovered by C. E. Shannon, the greatest information is carried by violations of the expected order. Psychologists confirm that anything unusual attracts more attention and is better remembered" [8, c. 60-65].
It is interesting that the theory of "deceived expectation" [7] arose in the study of the problem of the comic. T. Hobbes was the first to note that the moment of surprise in the comicplays a significant role: "most Likely we laugh at the very sharpness in which there is an unexpected, paradoxical and at the same time true observation." I. Kant develops this idea: " [7] Laughter is the affect of the sudden transformation of tense expectation into nothing."[4]
T. Lipps focuses on the "law of " mental congestion", which is the basis of all surprise and interest. The essence of it is that we expect one solution, but suddenly there is another corresponding to the situation; this substitution awakens interest because of its unusual nature, contributes to the concentration of "mental energy", that is, creates a "mental congestion" [7], the release of which is usually laughter. The Danishpsychologist G. Gefding believes that contrast is the basis of all forms of the comic, which arises from the fact that two thoughts and two impressions suddenly collide, of which each in itself causes a feeling, but in such a way that one destroys what built the other. M. Riffater offers the following model of the deceived expectation principle: in the speechchain, the stimulus of stylistic effect – contrast - consists of elements of low predictability encoded in one or more components, against the background of forming the context and creating the contrast of other components, only this variability can explain why the same linguistic unit acquires, modifies or loses its stylistic effect depending on its position. " On elements of low predictability decoding slows down, and this fixes attention on the form" [4, c. 80-85].
"The linearity of speech, its continuity means that the appearance of each individual component is prepared by the preceding ones, and it in turn prepares the subsequent ones" [7]. The addressee is already waiting for it, and it makes you expect the appearance of others. The following is partially given in the previous one. Transitions from one component to another in this connection are hardly noticeable, the consciousness seems to glide through the perceived information. but if the components of low probability appear in "the context, then there is a violation of continuity-the unpredictable and unexpected creates an obstacle to perception, overcoming this resistance requires an effort on the part of the addressee, as a result of which it affects him more strongly. The presented theory ("as well as all theories of the comic" [7] ) "contains a rational grain and makes a certain contribution to the study of the problem of speech genres of satire and humor" [12, с. 23-25].
"The elements of uniformity present in the world around a person typify his behavior, that is, subordinate to certain norms accepted in society (the action of the mechanism of stereotyping" [7]). With the violation of all kinds of stereotypes, ideas about the normal state of affairs is associated deceived expectation, and it is based on the contrast between the mental state caused by the expectation, and "the fact that it was not justified, as a result of which it is possible to display a fairly wide range of feelings" [4].
In order to represent a paradoxical (internally contradictory) world, as well as to convey the truth, whichcan’t be expressed in a consistent way, often used figures built on the principle of "deceived expectations" [7]: "Tell the truth, and you will be original."(A. Arkanov.). It should be noted that for an adequate understanding of the texts of speech genres of satire and humor, the author must take into account the presence of certain knowledge in the recipient, as well as" [5] "the cultural space in whichcommunication occurs" [12, c. 20-25].
There is a logically insoluble, irremediable contradiction in the paradox. The paradox is that in the Union of opposites, the fixation of attention on them, the creation of a flash that exposes the contrast, the phenomenon appears in all its ambiguity. The paradox is brief, it is covered by a single view, but it draws a long train of interpretations. A paradox is called a truth that has not yet become banal. To a certain extent, this is true, because it is directed against cliches, stereotyped thinking, once and for all established opinions and traditions.
Paradox gives a literary work wit and stylisticbrilliance, makes the author's thoughts bright and memorable. A good verbal paradox is brief, well-defined, logically complete, effective, and aphoristic. Often the paradox testifies to identity, independence of judgments; "it is used for fight against outdated canons, withprotective foundations" [12, p. 20-22].
A paradoxical statement must contradict the principles and principles stored in the reader's experience. It sharpens the reader's perception, makes you look at familiar things from a different angle, and at the same time stimulates the understanding of the text as a whole.
1.2 Typology of paradoxes
Considering the paradox in a literary text, on a functional basis, we can distinguish several types of paradoxical contradictions. The most frequently encountered pheno menon in literary texts is a paradox that affects the age-old problems that are significant both for an individual and for the development of society as a whole, and is classified, as " philosophical" [5].This kind of paradox seeks to learn more deeply the laws of coexistence and interaction of people in society, which often brings it closer to the " historical" [5] paradox, characteristic of artistic works that describe significant events in the life of an individual state and the world.
The philosophical type of paradox is often found in the works of B. Shaw:
"Blood costs nothing; wine costs money"
"What else but a love could stir up so much hate? "[5]
The means of emotional evaluation of historical events is the historical paradox, which figuratively and vividly conveys contradictory moments in the historical development of society. "Artistic depiction of historical events contributes to their deeper, emotional and sensory perception and understanding by the reader" [5].
Identifying the causes of historical paradox is the task of historical research. The author of a work of art only subjectively and figuratively reproduces in the context of the novel a historical contradiction that once arose. The most striking point, focusing the recipient's attention on the paradoxical moments in the historical development of Soviet society, is the following fraction of the text of the novel by b. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago" [5], in which the" [4] author summarizes the development of the Soviet state in the first decades of its existence:
"I think that collectivization was a false, unsuccessful measure, and the error it was impossible to admit. To hide the failure, it was necessary by all means of intimidation to wean people to judge and think and force them to see the non-existent and prove the opposite of evidence. hence the unparalleled cruelty of ezhovism, the promulgation of a Constitution not calculated to apply, and the introduction of elections not based on the electoral principle. And when the war broke out, its real horrors, real danger, and the threat of real death were a boon compared to the inhuman dominion of fiction, and brought relief because they limited the magical power of the dead letter"[5].
The problem of reproducing the versatility and inconsistency of the human character helps to reveal the "characterological" [5] paradox, often accompanied by an unexpected turn of the plot, fixed, in turn, the plot paradox. The plot and characterological types of paradox are often United by a common function of characterization of a particular image of a literary text" [13, с. 11-14].
Actualization of the contradiction in the behavior of a particular image of a work of art performs the function of characterization of the image and refers to characterological paradoxes. In contrast to the paradox, which is defined by its functional orientation as a philosophical one, it is quite difficult to trace the features of the functioning of a characterological contradiction in isolation from the integral context of the work. We note only that the following character is a paradox, quoted from the story of O. The purpose of the book "consciousness in Art" [5] is to focus the reader's attention on the characteristic features of the described images through an unusual combination of lexical means and a special syntactic organization of the utterance:
"They are roughbut uncivil in their manners, and though their ways are boisterous and unpolished, under it all they have a great deal of impoliteness and discourtesy"[5].
The master of the short story O. Henry in one sentence succinctly characterizes the characters. At the same time, instead of using antonyms in the antithesis, which is clearly visible in the quote due to the opposite unions but and thought, the author uses synonyms (highlighted in the original text), which violates the laws of the usual construction of the antithesis, thereby concentrating the reader's attention on this section of the text. Thus, the paradox of this fraction of the text is based on the comparison of lexical units with a similar meaning within the stylistic "figure of the opposite" [5].
The plot paradox is based entirely on a logically constructed text as a whole. A classic example of a paradox in the development of the plot is considered to be the plot of the novel by O. Wilde "Portrait of Dorian gray", according to which the portrait of the main character is aging, and not he himself, while the low actions of the hero remain outwardly imprinted on" [5] his image [4].
A special role — the function of implementing the author's irony in the artisticcontext — is performed by a kind of paradox, defined as ironic.
Quote from George Orwell's [4] short story "Farmyard", clearly reflects the author's irony :
"All animals are equal. but some animals are more equal than others"[14].
Paradoxical lies in the use of the adjective equal in an uncharacteristiccomparative degree. Thus, the paradox is based on a comparison of the lexical meaning of the word and one of the theoretically possible forms of its use. Most paradoxes that reflect the author's irony can be perceived as such only in the context of a particular situation.
From the point of view of the syntactic organization of paradoxical statements in a literary text, paradoxes are distinguished that are implemented in the macro-text, i.e. within the text of a work of art as a whole (paradoxical plot turns can serve as an example of suchparadoxes), in the micro-text (within a paragraph or several sentences), "as well as at the level of a sentence and a phrase" [15, c. 175].
"On a semanticbasis it is possible to classify such types of an art paradox as:
- paradoxes based on comparison" [5];
- paradoxes based on opposition;
- paradoxes-periphrases based on" [16] well-known statements[4].
The essence of the paradox-periphrasis succinctly characterizes the following judgment.
"It is only shallow people who do not judge by appearances"[17, p. 400].
It is obvious that the basis of periphrasis was the famous English proverb: "Never judge by appearances, refuted in a paradoxical statement through the use of the lexical unit shallow, which includes as part of its meaning negative connotations in the characterization of people acting in accordance with the stereotypical model of behavior reflected in the proverb" [18, c. 181-186].
Paradoxes largely lie at the heart of the poetics of Proverbs ("Quiet you go-further you will"[5], etc.) and a number of literary genres (for example, the famous fable "Nobleman" by I. A. Krylov is built on the paradox: a fool – ruler goes to heaven... for laziness and idleness). Paradox" [5], as an artistic technique, "is widely used in children's poetry of absurdities (L. Carroll, E. Milne, E. Lear, K. I. Chukovsky) " [4].
"There are paradoxes, as already noted above, whichcontradict any popular opinion" [5] : "Read the diary of a person-the least reliable way to find out the truth about him" (L. Darrell) " [4].
The paradoxes, whichcontains an apparent internal contradiction, logical incompatibility:
•"Who denies absolutely everything, he denies nothing" (D. I. Pisarev);
•"He who uses force proves his weakness" [5] (R. Tagore).
Many paradoxes contain signs of both kinds [4]:
•"The best government is the one that rules the least" [5] (T. Jefferson);
•"Doing nothing is very hard work" (O. Wilde).
A thought that is not paradoxical in itself can look likeaparadox in acertain situation: for example, an aphorism from the story of V. G. Korolenko "Paradox" (1894) - " Man is created for happiness, likeabird for flight" [5] - becomes aparadox, being put into the mouthof ahelpless beggar crippled.
Proverbs and sayings:
•"seven nurses haveachild without an eye" (Russian proverb);
•"everything is going for thebest in this worst of worlds"[4];
•"the road tohell is paved with thebest of intentions" (English proverb);
•"a large stone is a sign that they will not behit" (Persian proverb);
•"acarpenter's door is always broken";
•"so many sailors that the ship sank" [4] (Arabic proverb).
"The purpose of someparadoxes is to"[5] ridicule dogma, to shock, to impress withoriginality of judgment. Usually suchparadoxes areonly a means of characterization, but sometimes they before theauthor's views toacertain extent (suchare theparadoxes of many characters of I. S. Turgenev, O. Wilde, b. Shaw, A. France
"[10, с. 11-14] ). A paradox can hidea deep thought, a revealing irony:
•"The negation of a theory is already a theory" [6](I. S. Turgenev);
•"Now we declare that we will never be slaves; when we say that we will never be masters, then we will end slavery"[6] (B. Shaw).
"Sometimes theparadox takes on thecharacter of aphilosophical generalization"[6]: "Weare most likely to destroy what is dear toour heart" (Fyodor Tyutchev).
"Thus, thepractical analysis of theactual material allowed us to determine theconcept and natureof theparadox, its functions in the literary text, toclassify the types of paradoxical contradictions in the literary text by three main features"[5]: the method of syntacticand semantic organization, as well as in accordance with the functions of"[5] theartistic paradox in the text" [4]. As a result of researchof functions of paradoxical judgments in theart text characterological, historical, ironic, subject and philosophical types of aparadox were revealed.According to the method of syntactic organization, contradictions in the literary text are divided intoparadoxes, realized at the level of phrases, sentences, as well as in the micro-context and thecontext of the work as a whole.The study of semantic features of the interaction of lexical units in the composition of theartistic paradox allowed us to identify paradoxes based on comparison; “paradoxes based on opposition or contrast” [19, c. 9-11]; paradoxes-periphrases of known statements. "The ideaexpressed in a literary text by means of aparadox attracts attention withan unusual duality of approach to theproblem treated in a literary work, hardly remains unnoticed and stimulates the reader's search for their own answers to the questions considered by the author" [19, c 9-11].
1.3 The linguistic nature and functioning of the stylistic method of paradox in a literary text
Paradox is a characteristic feature of the style of a number of writers. Truth upside down, the gymnastics of the mind on a tightrope of concepts, conventional opinions and cliches, is a way to Express their views, serves, as A. M. Gorky emphasized, as a means of fighting against sanctimonious morality, stupidity, ignorance and hypocrisy. "If literary studies have already studied the paradox to a certain extent, as evidenced by the bibliography of critical works analyzing the work of O. Wilde, G. Chzesterton, B. Shaw, in whose works you can find an abundance of paradoxes, then in the linguistic literature this issue is not fully studied and one-sided" [22, c. 182-185].
The paradox is a certain verbal composition and as a figure of speech is used in various functional styles, it carries a large charge of stylistic information, and is one of the most effective means of influencing the reader. Researchers rightly note the need to study its specifics . However, " if techniques such as metaphor, comparison, antithesis" [9, c. 197], and others dedicated to monographic research, detailed descriptions in textbooks, then the paradox is either not mentioned at all in the list of stylistic techniques, or it is highlighted x the First digit indicates the number of the cited source /according to the bibliographic? to the list/, the last digit /after the decimal point - the page of the cited source. incompletely. "The few articles devoted to the problem of paradox in linguistics cannot fill this gap. The question of whether the paradox is a stylistic device remains controversial and requires proof" [20, c. 182-185].
"In modern linguistic literature, there is no unity of views on the nature of the paradox and the functions it performs. Points of view on the question of what is a paradox are extremely contradictory in linguistics" [21, c. 197]. On the one hand, the paradox is interpreted as a statement that refutes generally accepted opinions. He is studying in the same row with the popular expressions and aphorisms. At the same time, there is a point of view according to which the paradox is considered as a stylistic device, a figure of speech. It should also be noted that paradox, along with puns and puns, has always been the subject of study in the theory of the comic. "This in turn led to the consideration of the function of creating a comic effect as the only function of the paradox, to the denial of the possibility of using it with any other task" [21].
"Deceived expectation" [7] in the style is called " the appearance of an unpredictable element against the background of the context, whichhas a high orderliness." This definition describes the mechanism of "deceived expectations" [7, c. 96-100] in the most General terms. Therefore, researchers interpret it differently. We share the point of view of those researchers who consider "deceived expectation" [7] as a meaningful category.
"The main argument in favor of this point of view is the fact that unpredictability can be external (the language unit of a statement – the language system) and internal (the language unit – its context). These types of " [7] unpredictability may coincide and may occur separately. but "deceived expectation" is only a function of the second kind of unpredictability. As a stylistic term, "deceived expectation" should characterize a special kind of additional meaning and, therefore, qualify as a meaningful category" [7, c. 96-100]. So, we can say that "deceived expectation" is a meaningful category, meaning the sudden substitution of the relations of identity (proximity) between the linguistic units of a given utterance for the relations of opposition (inequality). "Good films are dear to us, but sometimes bad ones are too expensive" (E. Meek) [10, c. 23-25].
"V. V. Ovsyannikov notes the following criteria for the allocation of deceived expectations" [11]:
1. Structural-semantic. Deceived expectation has a two-part "build-up- discharge" structure. In" build-up" [7], the values are related on the basis of identity (proximity) relations, "discharge" manifests the relationship of the opposite (inequality) " [7].
2. "Composite. The deceived expectation is realized in speech as a compositional-linguistic unity, in which the semantic transposition is accompanied by a compositional one. It is due to this feature that this unity is easily isolated from the context" [7], functioning in the work of art as a micro anecdote.
3. Communicative. From the point of view of the "addressee – message – addressee" [7, c. 96-100] communicative chain, a deceived expectation can be represented as a statement in which two opposite communicative attitudes are realized. They can either really be present, or the illusion of their simultaneous presence is created. Moreover, communication can be both internally textual ("character-character") and externally textual ("author-reader" [4, c. 80-85]).
If we talk about the connection of the paradox in the speech genres of satire and humor with the "deceived expectation" [7], then we should take into account the psychological aspect of speechperception. human behavior is characterized by the ability to use the experience of the past to predict the upcoming situation. This is also appropriate for the recipient of the language game. Some statements the perceiver expects with greater probability, others with less, and the subjective probability may not coincide with the objective. A true gentleman always straightens his tie if a woman passes by the ditch. (From the TV show "Around laughter" [7].) The more unexpected the situation for the recipient, the stronger the emotional impact. "According to the law of quantity of information, discovered by C. E. Shannon, the greatest information is carried by violations of the expected order. Psychologists confirm that anything unusual attracts more attention and is better remembered" [8, c. 60-65].
It is interesting that the theory of "deceived expectation" [7] arose in the study of the problem of the comic. T. Hobbes was the first to note that the moment of surprise in the comicplays a significant role: "most Likely we laugh at the very sharpness in which there is an unexpected, paradoxical and at the same time true observation." I. Kant develops this idea: " [7] Laughter is the affect of the sudden transformation of tense expectation into nothing."[4]
T. Lipps focuses on the "law of " mental congestion", which is the basis of all surprise and interest. The essence of it is that we expect one solution, but suddenly there is another corresponding to the situation; this substitution awakens interest because of its unusual nature, contributes to the concentration of "mental energy", that is, creates a "mental congestion" [7], the release of which is usually laughter. The Danishpsychologist G. Gefding believes that contrast is the basis of all forms of the comic, which arises from the fact that two thoughts and two impressions suddenly collide, of which each in itself causes a feeling, but in such a way that one destroys what built the other. M. Riffater offers the following model of the deceived expectation principle: in the speechchain, the stimulus of stylistic effect – contrast - consists of elements of low predictability encoded in one or more components, against the background of forming the context and creating the contrast of other components, only this variability can explain why the same linguistic unit acquires, modifies or loses its stylistic effect depending on its position. " On elements of low predictability decoding slows down, and this fixes attention on the form" [4, c. 80-85].
"The linearity of speech, its continuity means that the appearance of each individual component is prepared by the preceding ones, and it in turn prepares the subsequent ones" [7]. The addressee is already waiting for it, and it makes you expect the appearance of others. The following is partially given in the previous one. Transitions from one component to another in this connection are hardly noticeable, the consciousness seems to glide through the perceived information. but if the components of low probability appear in "the context, then there is a violation of continuity-the unpredictable and unexpected creates an obstacle to perception, overcoming this resistance requires an effort on the part of the addressee, as a result of which it affects him more strongly. The presented theory ("as well as all theories of the comic" [7] ) "contains a rational grain and makes a certain contribution to the study of the problem of speech genres of satire and humor" [12, с. 23-25].
"The elements of uniformity present in the world around a person typify his behavior, that is, subordinate to certain norms accepted in society (the action of the mechanism of stereotyping" [7]). With the violation of all kinds of stereotypes, ideas about the normal state of affairs is associated deceived expectation, and it is based on the contrast between the mental state caused by the expectation, and "the fact that it was not justified, as a result of which it is possible to display a fairly wide range of feelings" [4].
In order to represent a paradoxical (internally contradictory) world, as well as to convey the truth, whichcan’t be expressed in a consistent way, often used figures built on the principle of "deceived expectations" [7]: "Tell the truth, and you will be original."(A. Arkanov.). It should be noted that for an adequate understanding of the texts of speech genres of satire and humor, the author must take into account the presence of certain knowledge in the recipient, as well as" [5] "the cultural space in whichcommunication occurs" [12, c. 20-25].
There is a logically insoluble, irremediable contradiction in the paradox. The paradox is that in the Union of opposites, the fixation of attention on them, the creation of a flash that exposes the contrast, the phenomenon appears in all its ambiguity. The paradox is brief, it is covered by a single view, but it draws a long train of interpretations. A paradox is called a truth that has not yet become banal. To a certain extent, this is true, because it is directed against cliches, stereotyped thinking, once and for all established opinions and traditions.
Paradox gives a literary work wit and stylisticbrilliance, makes the author's thoughts bright and memorable. A good verbal paradox is brief, well-defined, logically complete, effective, and aphoristic. Often the paradox testifies to identity, independence of judgments; "it is used for fight against outdated canons, withprotective foundations" [12, p. 20-22].
A paradoxical statement must contradict the principles and principles stored in the reader's experience. It sharpens the reader's perception, makes you look at familiar things from a different angle, and at the same time stimulates the understanding of the text as a whole.
1.2 Typology of paradoxes
Considering the paradox in a literary text, on a functional basis, we can distinguish several types of paradoxical contradictions. The most frequently encountered pheno menon in literary texts is a paradox that affects the age-old problems that are significant both for an individual and for the development of society as a whole, and is classified, as " philosophical" [5].This kind of paradox seeks to learn more deeply the laws of coexistence and interaction of people in society, which often brings it closer to the " historical" [5] paradox, characteristic of artistic works that describe significant events in the life of an individual state and the world.
The philosophical type of paradox is often found in the works of B. Shaw:
"Blood costs nothing; wine costs money"
"What else but a love could stir up so much hate? "[5]
The means of emotional evaluation of historical events is the historical paradox, which figuratively and vividly conveys contradictory moments in the historical development of society. "Artistic depiction of historical events contributes to their deeper, emotional and sensory perception and understanding by the reader" [5].
Identifying the causes of historical paradox is the task of historical research. The author of a work of art only subjectively and figuratively reproduces in the context of the novel a historical contradiction that once arose. The most striking point, focusing the recipient's attention on the paradoxical moments in the historical development of Soviet society, is the following fraction of the text of the novel by b. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago" [5], in which the" [4] author summarizes the development of the Soviet state in the first decades of its existence:
"I think that collectivization was a false, unsuccessful measure, and the error it was impossible to admit. To hide the failure, it was necessary by all means of intimidation to wean people to judge and think and force them to see the non-existent and prove the opposite of evidence. hence the unparalleled cruelty of ezhovism, the promulgation of a Constitution not calculated to apply, and the introduction of elections not based on the electoral principle. And when the war broke out, its real horrors, real danger, and the threat of real death were a boon compared to the inhuman dominion of fiction, and brought relief because they limited the magical power of the dead letter"[5].
The problem of reproducing the versatility and inconsistency of the human character helps to reveal the "characterological" [5] paradox, often accompanied by an unexpected turn of the plot, fixed, in turn, the plot paradox. The plot and characterological types of paradox are often United by a common function of characterization of a particular image of a literary text" [13, с. 11-14].
Actualization of the contradiction in the behavior of a particular image of a work of art performs the function of characterization of the image and refers to characterological paradoxes. In contrast to the paradox, which is defined by its functional orientation as a philosophical one, it is quite difficult to trace the features of the functioning of a characterological contradiction in isolation from the integral context of the work. We note only that the following character is a paradox, quoted from the story of O. The purpose of the book "consciousness in Art" [5] is to focus the reader's attention on the characteristic features of the described images through an unusual combination of lexical means and a special syntactic organization of the utterance:
"They are roughbut uncivil in their manners, and though their ways are boisterous and unpolished, under it all they have a great deal of impoliteness and discourtesy"[5].
The master of the short story O. Henry in one sentence succinctly characterizes the characters. At the same time, instead of using antonyms in the antithesis, which is clearly visible in the quote due to the opposite unions but and thought, the author uses synonyms (highlighted in the original text), which violates the laws of the usual construction of the antithesis, thereby concentrating the reader's attention on this section of the text. Thus, the paradox of this fraction of the text is based on the comparison of lexical units with a similar meaning within the stylistic "figure of the opposite" [5].
The plot paradox is based entirely on a logically constructed text as a whole. A classic example of a paradox in the development of the plot is considered to be the plot of the novel by O. Wilde "Portrait of Dorian gray", according to which the portrait of the main character is aging, and not he himself, while the low actions of the hero remain outwardly imprinted on" [5] his image [4].
A special role — the function of implementing the author's irony in the artisticcontext — is performed by a kind of paradox, defined as ironic.
Quote from George Orwell's [4] short story "Farmyard", clearly reflects the author's irony :
"All animals are equal. but some animals are more equal than others"[14].
Paradoxical lies in the use of the adjective equal in an uncharacteristiccomparative degree. Thus, the paradox is based on a comparison of the lexical meaning of the word and one of the theoretically possible forms of its use. Most paradoxes that reflect the author's irony can be perceived as such only in the context of a particular situation.
From the point of view of the syntactic organization of paradoxical statements in a literary text, paradoxes are distinguished that are implemented in the macro-text, i.e. within the text of a work of art as a whole (paradoxical plot turns can serve as an example of suchparadoxes), in the micro-text (within a paragraph or several sentences), "as well as at the level of a sentence and a phrase" [15, c. 175].
"On a semanticbasis it is possible to classify such types of an art paradox as:
- paradoxes based on comparison" [5];
- paradoxes based on opposition;
- paradoxes-periphrases based on" [16] well-known statements[4].
The essence of the paradox-periphrasis succinctly characterizes the following judgment.
"It is only shallow people who do not judge by appearances"[17, p. 400].
It is obvious that the basis of periphrasis was the famous English proverb: "Never judge by appearances, refuted in a paradoxical statement through the use of the lexical unit shallow, which includes as part of its meaning negative connotations in the characterization of people acting in accordance with the stereotypical model of behavior reflected in the proverb" [18, c. 181-186].
Paradoxes largely lie at the heart of the poetics of Proverbs ("Quiet you go-further you will"[5], etc.) and a number of literary genres (for example, the famous fable "Nobleman" by I. A. Krylov is built on the paradox: a fool – ruler goes to heaven... for laziness and idleness). Paradox" [5], as an artistic technique, "is widely used in children's poetry of absurdities (L. Carroll, E. Milne, E. Lear, K. I. Chukovsky) " [4].
"There are paradoxes, as already noted above, whichcontradict any popular opinion" [5] : "Read the diary of a person-the least reliable way to find out the truth about him" (L. Darrell) " [4].
The paradoxes, whichcontains an apparent internal contradiction, logical incompatibility:
•"Who denies absolutely everything, he denies nothing" (D. I. Pisarev);
•"He who uses force proves his weakness" [5] (R. Tagore).
Many paradoxes contain signs of both kinds [4]:
•"The best government is the one that rules the least" [5] (T. Jefferson);
•"Doing nothing is very hard work" (O. Wilde).
A thought that is not paradoxical in itself can look likeaparadox in acertain situation: for example, an aphorism from the story of V. G. Korolenko "Paradox" (1894) - " Man is created for happiness, likeabird for flight" [5] - becomes aparadox, being put into the mouthof ahelpless beggar crippled.
Proverbs and sayings:
•"seven nurses haveachild without an eye" (Russian proverb);
•"everything is going for thebest in this worst of worlds"[4];
•"the road tohell is paved with thebest of intentions" (English proverb);
•"a large stone is a sign that they will not behit" (Persian proverb);
•"acarpenter's door is always broken";
•"so many sailors that the ship sank" [4] (Arabic proverb).
"The purpose of someparadoxes is to"[5] ridicule dogma, to shock, to impress withoriginality of judgment. Usually suchparadoxes areonly a means of characterization, but sometimes they before theauthor's views toacertain extent (suchare theparadoxes of many characters of I. S. Turgenev, O. Wilde, b. Shaw, A. France
"[10, с. 11-14] ). A paradox can hidea deep thought, a revealing irony:
•"The negation of a theory is already a theory" [6](I. S. Turgenev);
•"Now we declare that we will never be slaves; when we say that we will never be masters, then we will end slavery"[6] (B. Shaw).
"Sometimes theparadox takes on thecharacter of aphilosophical generalization"[6]: "Weare most likely to destroy what is dear toour heart" (Fyodor Tyutchev).
"Thus, thepractical analysis of theactual material allowed us to determine theconcept and natureof theparadox, its functions in the literary text, toclassify the types of paradoxical contradictions in the literary text by three main features"[5]: the method of syntacticand semantic organization, as well as in accordance with the functions of"[5] theartistic paradox in the text" [4]. As a result of researchof functions of paradoxical judgments in theart text characterological, historical, ironic, subject and philosophical types of aparadox were revealed.According to the method of syntactic organization, contradictions in the literary text are divided intoparadoxes, realized at the level of phrases, sentences, as well as in the micro-context and thecontext of the work as a whole.The study of semantic features of the interaction of lexical units in the composition of theartistic paradox allowed us to identify paradoxes based on comparison; “paradoxes based on opposition or contrast” [19, c. 9-11]; paradoxes-periphrases of known statements. "The ideaexpressed in a literary text by means of aparadox attracts attention withan unusual duality of approach to theproblem treated in a literary work, hardly remains unnoticed and stimulates the reader's search for their own answers to the questions considered by the author" [19, c 9-11].
1.3 The linguistic nature and functioning of the stylistic method of paradox in a literary text
Paradox is a characteristic feature of the style of a number of writers. Truth upside down, the gymnastics of the mind on a tightrope of concepts, conventional opinions and cliches, is a way to Express their views, serves, as A. M. Gorky emphasized, as a means of fighting against sanctimonious morality, stupidity, ignorance and hypocrisy. "If literary studies have already studied the paradox to a certain extent, as evidenced by the bibliography of critical works analyzing the work of O. Wilde, G. Chzesterton, B. Shaw, in whose works you can find an abundance of paradoxes, then in the linguistic literature this issue is not fully studied and one-sided" [22, c. 182-185].
The paradox is a certain verbal composition and as a figure of speech is used in various functional styles, it carries a large charge of stylistic information, and is one of the most effective means of influencing the reader. Researchers rightly note the need to study its specifics . However, " if techniques such as metaphor, comparison, antithesis" [9, c. 197], and others dedicated to monographic research, detailed descriptions in textbooks, then the paradox is either not mentioned at all in the list of stylistic techniques, or it is highlighted x the First digit indicates the number of the cited source /according to the bibliographic? to the list/, the last digit /after the decimal point - the page of the cited source. incompletely. "The few articles devoted to the problem of paradox in linguistics cannot fill this gap. The question of whether the paradox is a stylistic device remains controversial and requires proof" [20, c. 182-185].
"In modern linguistic literature, there is no unity of views on the nature of the paradox and the functions it performs. Points of view on the question of what is a paradox are extremely contradictory in linguistics" [21, c. 197]. On the one hand, the paradox is interpreted as a statement that refutes generally accepted opinions. He is studying in the same row with the popular expressions and aphorisms. At the same time, there is a point of view according to which the paradox is considered as a stylistic device, a figure of speech. It should also be noted that paradox, along with puns and puns, has always been the subject of study in the theory of the comic. "This in turn led to the consideration of the function of creating a comic effect as the only function of the paradox, to the denial of the possibility of using it with any other task" [21].