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The paradox technique is associated with the names of individual writers. This phenomenon characterizes the work of English writers and playwrights of the late XIX- early XX century, who share a hatred of Victorian England, rejection of its canons and rules. Their work is imbued with a desire to throw off the pedestal of truth about worshiped by the Philistines" Factual material on the basis of which a survey shows that consumer O.Wilde, B. Shaw, G. K Chesterton prie paradox was addressed by W. Shakespeare, E. B. Browning" [21], O.Huxley, and many others.
"There is also a complication in the fact that the word paradoxical has several meanings" [21, c. 197]. Many dictionaries, encyclopedias, and reference books explain and define it of the dissertation/, since the term "paradox" is found in different areas of human life, it is used in philosophy, literary studies, logic, stylistics, and rhetoric [22, c. 60-69]. Nevertheless, each science, using the term paradox, designates various phenomena by it. The stylistic method of paradox, having points of contact with those phenomena that study these areas of knowledge, "can not be identified with the paradoxes of logic, with the paradoxes that arise in the development of certain scientific constructions. The theory of the comic and literary studies consider the paradox from a different angle" [21].
"The problem of paradox cannot be solved without involving extensive factual material, consistent application of the methods that exist in modern stylistics" [21, c. 197].
The first monographic research that examines the linguistic nature of the paradox. For the first time a detailed analysis is provided for the operation of this method, new is matching language and speech of paradoxes.
"The methodological basis of the research is the theory of reflection of Marxist-Leninist dialectics" [21], as well as the doctrine of dialectical materialism about contradiction. The work uses a set of methods. The comparative method helps to determine common and distinct features of language and speech paradoxes. The modeling method is used in determining the model for creating a stylistic method of paradox. the Study of transformed stable phrases in order to create a paradox, "Proverbs built on a paradox, is based on the method of phraseological identification developed by" [21, c. 197] A.B.Bunin. The method of substitutions is used when selecting a logical norm of utterance, and a stylistic experiment is involved
The study of the paradox involved exclusively the material of the works of Bernard Shaw. Constantly throughout the selection of factual material, a stylistic experiment was conducted, which consisted in the fact that with the help of substitutions, as well as various transformations, a logical norm of utterance was distinguished, removing the alogism and inconsistency in the examples of the paradox. Using the modeling method, a model for creating a reception was defined, its functions and syntactic structure were studied. The actual material, as well as the theoretical background/ definition of a stylistic device "allowed us to put forward the hypothesis that the paradox is a stylistic device, since the definition of a stylistic device was superimposed on the studied phenomenon" [23, c. 168].
We used extensive material from dictionaries of quotations and works of fiction by English writers of various eras, trends and genres. As an auxiliary material, we used journalism, samples of scientific style, as well as fixing the conversational and everyday style. This made it possible to make certain" [21, c. 197] adjustments to the initially allocated invariant characteristics of the paradox, "the means of creating a reception. Based on the observations, a working definition of the paradox was formulated" [21, c. 197].
The research was the selection of factual material from the English-Russian phraseological dictionary of A.V.Sunin, while also involving the material of English dictionaries of idioms, Proverbs and quotations. This made it possible to classify all the paradoxes contained in the sample into language and speech ones. "The comparison method 4 identified common and distinct features of language and speech paradoxes. The use of arithmetic calculations determined the predominance of speech paradoxes over language ones. At the next stage of the work, the functioning of the reception in the context was determined. The actual material allowed us to draw conclusions about the performance of certain functions by the paradox" [24, c. 352]. The functioning of both speech and language paradoxes was studied. Selection of factual material from sources. 1000 examples of the paradox were selected from the text of works by English writers and dictionaries /the list of works and dictionaries based on which the selection was made is given in the dissertation/. "Compiled an additional sample of examples of the use of the stylistic device of oxymoron /for comparison in the study of syntactic structures of acceptance of paradox/, zeugma/to decide on logical/, aphorism /to distinguish between aphorism and paradox" [21, c. 197].
"The stylistic method of paradox is defined in this work as such an illogical connection of two parts of a single sentence, components of a FE or several sentences, in which contradictory concepts are combined, and generally accepted opinions and cliches are refuted. Invariant characteristic features of the paradox are" [5]: I / presence of alogism, 2/ inconsistency, 3/ simultaneous implementation of the relations of contrast and identity, V generality, 5" [5] / unexpected, [4] unusual interpretation of the known and familiar. The model of creating a reception to A B, And "C -" and means B, but is not B, and C", a special case of which is the model A = A - "and means A, but A is not A".
"The psychological perception of the paradox is based on the effect of deceived expectations" [25]. The paradox is a special case of the deceived expectation effect that can accompany many stylistic approaches.
"The contradiction observed in the paradox is resolved in the context" [25]. To resolve it, you need a / microtext / sentence/, b / maedocontext /paragraph/, C / situational context, d / text. In the context, the denotative meaning of a word is directly negated and diametrically opposed features are attributed to it.
"Paradoxical statements are not deviations from the norms of language and speech, since all the rules of language are observed when creating a paradox. Contradictory statements are created intentionally and are not the result of ignorance or inability to translate. The stylistic norm is also not violated, since words are chosen in accordance with the sphere of their use, and also because" [25] paradoxes are built on a certain model" in the case of occasional "FE transformations when creating a paradox, there is a deviation from the yaznkov norm, but there are no deviations from the speech norm" [25, с. 257].
"Alogism in the paradox is created by deviating from the logical norm of the utterance" [25, с. 257]. "This term in the work refers to a word or group of words that make a sentence logical, meaningful at the semantic level. When deciphering the paradox, the change in the generally accepted always corresponds to the logical norm of the utterance" [25]. The transformation of the conventional is expediently explained using the concept of a pragmatic presumption .
The paradox is an alogism at the level of a sentence. The technique occurs in I/ one sentence: a / simple common, b/ compound, C/ compound, and 2 / multiple sentences. It can be part of a more complex whole. Inversion, emphatic constructions contribute to the expressiveness of the paradox, and the use of infinitive constructions creates conciseness. The paradoxes that form a compound sentence are mainly observed in subordinate additional, determinative, concessive, and subordinate clauses of time, condition. A paradox that is created using multiple sentences in most cases contrasts two statements in two sentences.
"The degree of surprise of illogical compounds is directly proportional to the number of members of the sentence: the more words, especially those that emphasize the quality denied by the subsequent part of the statement, the greater the surprise and vice versa" [25].
The oppositions observed in paradoxes are of two types: "implicit and explicit. Implicit is the opposition between the logical norm of an utterance and a word or group of words whose use makes it a paradox. Logically correct statements and generally accepted opinions, against which the paradox is directed and with which the reader always correlates the paradoxical statement, are expressed implicitly" [25]. Explicit is the opposition observed in the most paradoxical utterance between two parts of a single sentence or several sentences. Explicit opposition is present in the paradox, since the paradox is a combination of contradictory concepts.
"Means creating paradox are Antonis as different root and affixal, the negation, the antithesis, the transformation of FE. The effectiveness of using the mechanism of substitutions and permutations increases in FE in comparison with replacing the word with its antonym, in a sentence expressing generally accepted judgments, for the reason that expressiveness and emotionality act as components of the meaning of most FE, as their categorical properties. To create a paradox, we use antonymous substitutions, permutations of components, and" [25] wedging" [26, p. 51].
Based on the linguistic opposition between language and speech, the work highlights language and speech paradoxes, And there are both differences and common features between them.
Language paradoxes are proverbs and sayings, as well as other types of FE, built on the paradox. The term speech paradoxes refers to individual author's formations that characterize a separate act of communication.
Language and speech paradoxes have both common and distinct features. They have in common the invariant characteristics inherent in the paradox as a certain verbal composition: the presence of alogism - deviations from the logical norm, contradictions, incompatibility of two parts of the statement, generality. The model for constructing both language and speech paradoxes is the same.
There are significant differences between language and speech paradoxes. Language paradoxes are known to native speakers, they do not have such an invariant characteristic of the paradox as an unexpected interpretation of the known and familiar. Speech paradoxes are more diverse in their syntactic structure, and may go beyond a single sentence. Such a feature as generality is more characteristic of language than speech paradoxes. The number of language paradoxes in any language is limited, the number of speech paradoxes in principle has no restrictions. Language not only selects all the best that is created in the process of speech activity, but it is also an organized system in which an element that duplicates the previous means for expressing SLS gets under certain conditions. The process of "postponing" is long and complex.
The inconsistency of language paradoxes is erased due to the frequent use of native speakers. In comparison with language paradoxes, speech paradoxes are characterized by greater originality and originality. Language paradoxes are anonymous, but speech paradoxes always have their creator. Language paradoxes are characterized by reproducibility in a ready-made form, stability of meaning, composition and structure. They are contradictory in form, but not in content. The reproduction of a language paradox in speech is an expressive means.
"The stylistic functions of the paradox are not limited to the function of creating humorous and satirical effects. Reception can be used- to be used with a variety of stylistic reference. The individual functions of the paradox are closely related to each other. The paradox is used for the purpose of provability, serves as a "proof from the opposite" [25]. A contradictory form of utterance is used to convey sholi. The negative point is that the paradox can be used to prove both true and false judgments. The provability function is closely related to the persuasion function performed by the paradox. Persuasion with the help of a paradox is carried out due to the brightness, catchiness of the reception. The logical error in the paradox is created deliberately in order to convey confidence in the correctness of views. " Despite the fact that the paradox is sometimes just an empty play on words, it mostly conveys deep, just thoughts. The content paradox prevails" [25].
The technique is used for the purpose of intellectualizing statements, helps to create an intellectual atmosphere in the"novel of ideas" [25]. This function is closely related to the function of creating a comic effect, the paradox is also" [25] used to create an aphoristic utterance, as it contributes to the compression of thoughts and impressions, in addition, the paradox is a means of detecting contradictions in the surrounding reality. When describing the function of creating a comic effect, the paradox distinguishes between humorous and satirical effects, since humor and satire should be considered as two sides of the comic. Humor sees not only and not so much the negative in the phenomenon as [25]the positive; satire mercilessly and acutely ridicules evil. " The paradox is a means of fighting against cliches, standards, and stereotypes of thought" [25].
Paradox examples in literature: In George Orwell’s dystopian novel, 1984, much of the novel’s premise exits in paradoxes. This is because the ruling Party is so extreme, that to believe in it would be to believe in logical contradictions.
In the text, the Party’s motto is this: “War is peace, freedom is slavery, ignorance is strength.”To any “outsider” these propositions are unlikely and therefore paradoxes. However, to a character in 1984, this is accepted as truth.Orwell skillfully uses paradoxes to show the dominance of the Party to reinforce his dystopia.
" Animal Farm
(By George Orwell)In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, one part of the cardinal rule is" [27] this statement:“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others”[27].
"This statement seems to not make any sense. However, on closer examination, it" [27] becomes clear that Orwell points out a political truth. " The government in the novel claims that everyone is equal, but it has never treated everyone equally. It is the concept of equality stated in this paradox that is opposite to the common belief of equality" [27], [31, с. 459].
Example 1: Literary paradox
"I must be cruel only to be kind (Hamlet III.IV.181" [28, c. 381].) This is a nice literary paradox, but not a logical one. Cruel and kind are apparent contradictions, but of course it’s perfectly logical to say that one must be cruel (in some minor way) in order to be kind (in some other, more important way). There’s no logical contradiction, and therefore no logical paradox. The character Hamlet, however, combines disparate attributes of kindness and cruelty, so his personality is loosely paradoxical.
Example 2: Logical Paradox
A Chinese folk tale tells of a blacksmith who created the best armor and weapons in the world. He once created a spear that could pierce any object. He then created a shield that could deflect any attack. When a young boy asked him what would happen if he tried to pierce the shield with the spear, the blacksmith realized he could not answer. Because of this story, the Chinese character for “paradox” is a spear next to a shield.
Example 3: Logical Paradox
Zeno’s paradox, one of the oldest paradoxes that we know of, states:
A man approaches a wall 10 feet away. To get there, he must first go half the distance (5 feet), then half the remaining distance (2.5 feet), half the remaining distance (1.25 feet) and so on. Therefore in order to reach the wall he must complete an infinite number of actions, which is impossible, before he can reach the wall. Therefore it is impossible to reach the wall. Of course, we know from experience that it’s quite easy to walk twenty feet and touch a wall — but the logic shows this to be impossible!
Although this was considered a difficult paradox by the ancient Greeks, most philosophers today believe that it can be escaped because the “infinite number of actions” theory is invalid. (In other words, the underlined portion is not a logically valid step, and therefore there is no genuine logical paradox, but rather a simple logical error.)
Examples of Paradox in Pop Culture
Example 1: Logical Paradox
In an episode of Futurama, Fry (one of the main characters) travels back in time to the 1940s, where he comes face-to-face with his own grandfather, Enos. He knows that if he kills him, it will create a logical paradox that may destroy the universe, but Fry’s clumsy efforts to protect Enos from harm put the pair in greater and greater danger. Finally Fry accidentally causes Enos to be destroyed by a nuclear test. (This logical paradox is resolved, however, because it turns out that Enos was not actually Fry’s grandfather to begin with.)
Example 2: Literary Paradox
In the television show House, the main character is a rude, narcissistic, and abrasive man who constantly alienates those around him. However, he is a brilliant doctor and deeply committed to saving his patients’ lives. Thus, he combines a gruff, mean exterior with a deep sense of compassion and morality.
Example 3: Literary Paradox:
I close my eyes so I can see (Fugazi, Shut the Door)In the lyrics to Fugazi’s song Shut the Door, there’s an apparent contradiction between closing eyes and seeing. However, this is merely a literary paradox (or an oxymoron, since it employs a double entendre). Clearly, the word “see” isn’t being used literally in this case, but rather figuratively – closing one’s eyes to the outside world allows one to “see” internal truths.
Related terms (Terms: self-fulfilling prophecy, dilemma, irony, oxymoron and juxtaposition)
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Because time-travel paradoxes are so common in popular culture, we often confuse them with self-fulfilling prophecies. The basic difference is which direction you’re traveling. Because the future does not have logical consequences (it’s considered “open”), only traveling back in time can produce a paradox. However, traveling or looking forward in time can produce a self-fulfilling prophecy. A scientist peers into the future and sees a terrible apocalypse. When he returns, he tries to warn humanity, but everyone laughs at him and in his anger he turns on them with his machines, thus causing the very destruction that he witnessed in the future. No part of this story contradicts or makes itself impossible, so it’s not a paradox.
Time Travel Paradox:
"A time traveler from 2025 builds a time machine in order to assassinate Hitler and prevent the second world war. He succeeds, meaning that the war never happened and he (in 2025) would have had no reason to build the time machine in the first place, meaning Hitler was never assassinated" [9, с. 12-13].
In this story, the logical consequences of the character’s actions imply that those actions could never have happened. There’s a contradiction, and therefore a paradox.
Dilemma: Some people mistake dilemmas for paradoxes, but they’re actually quite different. A dilemma is a difficult choice, whereas a paradox is a violation of logic itself. In a dilemma, we may have conflicting needs or desires, but those desires are logically compatible, so there’s no logical paradox. Moreover, the dilemma involves two possible situations, not one actual situation, so there’s no literary paradox either.
For example, say a single dad wants to provide for his kids with a better job, but in order to do that he needs to go back to school, which will take him away from his kids. Should he spend more time with them? Or go back to school, get a better job, and give them a better life? It’s a difficult choice – a dilemma. But there is neither a logical paradox nor a literary paradox in this situation.
Irony: Irony (or, to be precise, situational irony) is an event or circumstance that violates our expectations. However, it is not a violation of logic, so it is not a logical paradox. This is a common mistake!
For example, it would be ironic if an ethics professor was stealing money from her students. (Because we have an expectation that a professor of ethics will be an expert on doing what’s right, and therefore won’t be a thief.) But that situation would not exactly be paradoxical, since a person’s position teaching ethics doesn’t logically imply that he or she must be a good person[8, c. 33-85].
However, the professor could be seen as a literary paradox, since her personality combines two disparate elements: expertise in ethics, and an inability to behave ethically.
Oxymoron: An oxymoron is an apparent paradox that can be escaped through puns or double entendre. For example, “jumbo shrimp” is an oxymoron. It would be a paradox if shrimp necessarily meant “something small.” But shrimp can also mean a specific animal, and thus the apparent paradox is just an illusion. Similarly, the phrase “a poor man of great wealth” appears to be a paradox, but the contradiction disappears once we realize that the “wealth” is not money, but spiritual, moral, or intellectual fulfillment.
Juxtaposition: "When an author places two or more disparate elements next to one another, this is referred to as juxtaposition, but it can also fall under the broad definition of literary paradox. For example, one of the most famous images of juxtaposition shows a group of anti-war protesters surrounded by soldiers who are pointing rifles at them, with one man out of the crowd placing flowers in the barrel of each gun. The image juxtaposes violence against the gentle harmlessness of flowers. This combination of disparate elements could also be seen as a literary paradox" [15, с. 175].
Examples of Paradox in Literature" [27]
•"Your enemy’s friend is your enemy" [29].
•I am nobody.
•“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” [27] – George Bernard Shaw
•Wise fool
•Truth is honey, which is bitter.
•“I can resist anything but temptation” [29] – Oscar Wilde
From the above examples of paradox, we can say that paradox creates a humorous effect on the readers because of its ridiculousnessc" [29]. In literature, paradox is not just a clever or comical statement or use of words. Paradox has serious" [27] implications because it makes statements that often summarize the major themes of the work they are used in. Let us analyze some paradox examples from some famous literary works" [27]: The most famous philosophical opponent was the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw. Their debates in print and in public were a subject of great amusement, and a source of one witty exchange after another: Chesterton: I see there has been a famine in the land. Shaw: And I see the cause of it. Shaw: If I were as fat as you, I would hang myself. Chesterton: If I were to hang myself, I would use you for the rope.