Файл: Технологический университет.docx

In 1653, the “Merchants and Elders of the Community of New Amsterdam” won the right to establish what was called “a city government.” This was the birth of the municipality which would later become New York City. The Dutch colonial period lasted for more than 50 years. In 1664, during hostilities leading up to the second Anglo-Dutch War, Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor, surrendered New Netherland to James II of England, who came to be known as James, Duke of York. The British easily adapted the governments previously established by the Dutch to their own patterns and then further modified them to meet the needs of colonial New Yorkers. Pressed to name a single source for the present pattern of local government in New York, a historian can cite a number of dates and places and can argue that each has validity. However, the most prominent single event in the development of contemporary forms of local government in colonial New York was the “Convention” of delegates, which took place in 1665 at Hempstead, in what is now Nassau County. Its purpose was to propose laws for the colony which had only the year before passed from Dutch to British rule. The laws proposed by these delegates were adopted for the most part and came to be called the Duke of York’s laws. They recognized the existence of 17 towns and created one county, called Yorkshire. Thus, the beginnings of town and county government in New York reflected colonial policies of the English government, certain Dutch patterns, and British colonial experience.

At an historic “General Assembly of Freeholders” convened in 1683 by Governor Thomas Dongan, participants passed a charter outlining the principles by which the colony ought to be governed. Known as the Charter of Liberties and Privileges, its principles were drawn from the Magna Carta and closely resembled our modern constitutions. Among other important actions, the Assembly divided the province of New York into 12 counties. The county became the basis of representation in the Colonial Assembly and also the unit of administration for the system of courts that was established at the same time. The charter was signed by the Duke of York and then vetoed by him five months later when he ascended to the throne as King James II. He abandoned the throne in 1688, and in 1691, a new assembly, elected under Governor Henry Sloughter, passed new statutes reasserting the principles contained in the original charter.
(New York State. Department of State. URL: https://www.dos.ny.gov/)

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Вариант 1 для направления подготовки 54.03.01 Дизайн

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DEFINING DESIGN
Design is the planning that lays the basis for the making of every object or system. In a broader way, it means applied arts and engineering. As a verb, “to design” refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a product, structure, system, or component with intention. As a noun, “a design” is used for either the final (solution) plan (e.g. proposal, drawing, model, description) or the result of implementing that plan in the form of the final product of a design process. This classification aside, in its broadest sense no other limitations exist and the final product can be anything from clothing to graphical user interfaces to skyscrapers. Even virtual concepts such as corporate identity and cultural traditions such as celebration of certain holidays are sometimes designed. More recently, processes (in general) have also been treated as products of design, giving new meaning to the term process design.

“Process design” (in contrast to “design process”) refers to the planning of routine steps of a process aside from the expected result. Processes (in general) are treated as a product of design, not the method of design. The term originated with the industrial designing of chemical processes. With the increasing complexities of the information age, consultants and executives have found the term useful to describe the design of business processes as well as manufacturing processes.

The person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas, usually also specifying which area is being dealt with (such as a fashion designer, concept designer or web designer). Designing often requires a designer to consider the aesthetic, functional, and many other aspects of an object or a process, which usually requires considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. With such a broad definition, there is no universal language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject. However, serious study of design demands increased focus on the design process.
(Касаткина Т.Ю. English for Design Students: учеб.пособие)

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Вариант 2 для направления подготовки 54.03.01 Дизайн

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DESIGN AND ART
Design is often viewed as a more rigorous form of art, or art with a clearly defined purpose. The distinction is usually made when someone other than the artist is defining the purpose. In graphic arts the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art. Applied art and decorative arts are other terms, the latter mostly used for objects from the past.

In the realm of the arts, design is more relevant to the “applied” arts, such as architecture and industrial design. In fact today the term design is widely associated to modern industrial product design as initiated by Raymond Loewy and teachings at the Bauhaus and Ulm School of Design (HfG Ulm) in Germany during the XXth century. Design implies a conscious effort to create something that is both functional and aesthetically pleasing. For example, a graphic artist may design an advertisement poster. This person's job is to communicate the advertisement message (functional aspect) and to make it look good (aesthetically pleasing).

The distinction between pure and applied arts is not completely clear, but one may consider Jackson Pollock's (often criticized as “splatter”) paintings as an example of pure art. One may assume his art does not convey a message based on the obvious differences between an advertisement poster and the mere possibility of an abstract message of a Jackson Pollock painting. One may speculate that Pollock, when painting, worked more intuitively than would a graphic artist, when consciously designing a poster. However, Mark Getlein suggests the principles of design are “almost instinctive”, “built-in”, “natural”, and part of “our sense of "rightness"”. Pollock, as a trained artist, may have utilized design whether conscious or not.

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(Касаткина Т.Ю. English for Design Students: учеб.пособие)

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Вариант 1 для направления подготовки 10.03.01 Информационная безопасность

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INFORMATION SYSTEMS SECURITY
Today’s Internet is a worldwide network with more than 2 billion users. It includes almost every government, business, and organization on Earth. However, having that many users on the same network wouldn’t solely have been enough to make the Internet a game-changing innovation. These users needed some type of mechanism to link documents and resources across computers. In other words, a user on computer A needed an easy way to open a document on computer B. This need gave rise to a system that defines how documents and resources are related across network machines. The name of this system is the World Wide Web (WWW). You may know it as cyberspace or simply as the Web. Think of it this way: The Internet links communication networks to one another. The Web is the connection of websites, webpages, and digital content on those networked computers. Cyberspace is all the accessible users, networks, webpages, and applications working in this worldwide electronic realm.

Unfortunately, when you connect to cyberspace, you also open the door to a lot of bad guys. They want to find you and steal your data. Every computer or device that connects to the Internet is at risk, creating an Internet of Things (IoT) that supports users in all aspects of their lives. Like outer space, the maturing Internet is a new frontier. There is no Internet government or central authority. It is full of challenges—and questionable behavior. This questionable behavior is evident given the data breaches we’ve seen in the past three years alone. In the United States, public and private sectors have been compromised through unauthorized access and data breach attacks. These recent attacks have been committed by individuals, organized cybercriminals, and attackers from other nations. The quantity of cyberattacks on U.S. interests is increasing. With the Internet of Things (IoT) now connecting personal devices, home devices, and vehicles to the Internet, there are even more data to steal. All users must defend their information from attackers. Cybersecurity is the duty of every government that wants to ensure its national security. Data security is the responsibility of every organization that needs to protect its information assets and sensitive data (e.g., SSNs, credit card numbers, and the like).

And it’s the job of all of us to protect our own data. The components that make up cyberspace are not automatically secure. These components include cabling, physical networks, operating systems, and software applications that computers use to connect to the Internet. At the heart of the problem is the lack of security in the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) communications protocol. This protocol is the language that computers most commonly use to communicate across the Internet. (A protocol is a list of rules and methods for communicating.) TCP/IP is not just one protocol but a suite of protocols developed for communicating across a network. Named after the two most important protocols, TCP/IP works together to allow any two computers to communicate. Connecting two or more computers creates a network. TCP/IP breaks messages into chunks, or packets, to send data between networked computers. The problem lies in the fact that data are readable within each IP packet using simple software available to anyone.
(English for Computer Science Students: учеб. пособие / Сост. Т. В. Смирнова, М. В. Юдельсон; науч. ред. Н. А. Дударева)

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Вариант 2 для направления подготовки 10.03.01 Информационная безопасность

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RISKS, THREATS, AND VULNERABILITIES
Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen to an asset. It is the level of exposure to some event that has an effect on an asset. In the context of IT security, an asset can be a computer, a database, or a piece of information. Examples of risk include the following:

• Losing data

• Losing business because a disaster has destroyed your building

• Failing to comply with laws and regulations

A threat is any action that could damage an asset. Information systems face both natural and human-induced threats. The threats of flood, earthquake, or severe storms require organizations to create plans to ensure that business operation continues and that the organization can recover. A business continuity plan (BCP) gives priorities to the functions an organization needs to keep going. A disaster recovery plan (DRP) defines how a business gets back on its feet after a major disaster such as a fire or hurricane. Human-caused threats to a computer system include viruses, malicious code, and unauthorized access. A virus is a computer program written to cause damage to a system, an application, or data. Malicious code, or malware, is a computer program written to cause a specific action to occur, such as erasing a hard drive. These threats can harm an individual, business, or organization.

A vulnerability is a weakness that allows a threat to be realized or to have an effect on an asset. To understand what a vulnerability is, think about lighting a fire. Lighting a fire is not necessarily bad. If you are cooking a meal on a grill, you will need to light a fire in the grill. The grill is designed to contain the fire and should pose no danger if used properly. On the other hand, lighting a fire in a computer data center will likely cause damage. A grill is not vulnerable to fire, but a computer data center is. A threat by itself does not always cause damage; there must be a vulnerability for a threat to be realized.

Vulnerabilities can often result in legal liabilities. Any vulnerability that allows a threat to be realized may result in legal action. Since computers must run software to be useful, and since humans write software, software programs inevitably contain errors. Thus, software vendors must protect themselves from the liabilities of their own vulnerabilities with an End-User License Agreement (EULA). A EULA takes effect when the user opens the package and installs the software. All software vendors use EULAs. That means the burden of protecting IT systems and data lies on internal information systems security professionals.

The goal and objective of a data classification standard is to provide a consistent definition for how an organization should handle and secure different types of data. Security controls protect different data types. These security controls are within the seven domains of a typical IT infrastructure. Procedures and guidelines must define how to handle data within the seven domains of a typical IT infrastructure to ensure data security. For businesses and organizations under recent compliance laws, data classification standards typically include the following major categories:

• Private data—Data about people that must be kept private. Organizations must use proper security controls to be in compliance.

• Confidential—Information or data owned by the organization. Intellectual property, customer lists, pricing information, and patents are examples of confidential data.

• Internal use only—Information or data shared internally by an organization. Although confidential information or data may not be included, communications are not intended to leave the organization.

• Public domain data—Information or data shared with the public such as website content, white papers, and the like.

Depending on your organization’s data classification standard, you may need to encrypt data of the highest sensitivity even in storage devices and hard drives. For example, you may need to use encryption and VPN technology when using the public Internet for remote access. But internal LAN communications and access to systems, applications, or data may not require use of encryption. Users may also be restricted from getting to private data of customers and may be able to access only certain pieces of data. Customer service reps provide customer service without getting to all of a customer’s private data. For example, they may not be able to see the customer’s entire Social Security number or account numbers; only the last four digits may be visible. This method of hiding some of the characters of the sensitive data element is called masking.

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